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随着英语听力教学的不断深入和发展,文化背景知识越来越受到重视,而且不少学生对英美文化背景知识知之甚少。因此,在听力教学过程中介绍相应的文化背景知识不仅是重要的而且是必要的。在教学过程中,教师应该充分发挥作用,向学生尽可能多地介绍英语文化背景知识,增强学生的英美文化意识,培养学生的英语思维能力;在课外时间,教师还应该组织学生开展形式多样的活动,加深他们对英美文化背景知识的认识。以下是读文网小编今天要与大家分享:大学英语教学中的文化背景知识探讨相关论文,具体内容如下,欢迎阅读!
摘要:英语教学在中国已受到越来越广泛的重视,然而包含于语言教学中的文化知识却没能受到足够的重视,导致了许多学生在没有任何语法和词汇障碍的交际中无法正确表达自己或者理解母语者的意思,甚至形成了文化冲突。为帮助学生更好的交际,就要求英语教育者加强对学生的文化背景知识教育。
关键词:文化背景知识 语言教学 交际 文化障碍。
英语,如其他语言一样,也有许多文化障碍—语言的和非语言的。在此,我们主要探讨包含在语言障碍中的文化背景知识。“众所周知,语言教学不仅是教语言,而且是教文化”(戚雨村,1992)。“没有目的语的文化知识要成功交际是很困难的”(胡文仲,1992)。但在现实中,文化意识无论是在课堂还是在课外都没有被给予足够的重视。就语言和文化而言,要理解其一,就需要另外一个,因此为了促进学生的英语学习,在教语言的同时解释文化就在情理之中。由此可见,教师对文化背景知识的解释有助于学生克服语言学习中的文化障碍并能使其获得较好的交际能力。
文化背景知识是指一个社会与历史,地理,哲学,信仰,风俗习惯等相关的表达方式。Paul D.Coverdell (2001) 认为:
文化是人们共享的且指导他们行为的信仰,价值观,假设等。这些信仰和生活方式代代相传。理解另一种文化包括了从多个方面去了解它的行为方式,习俗,动作,实践。
学生们应该知道:“任何行为都有两种解释:行为发出者赋予它的含义和行为观察者赋予它的含义”(ibid,1989:29)。因此在语言教学的过程中,文化背景知识是对语言点,重点单词和表达方式的一个必要的补充。否则,学生可能有时会发现很难理解上下文或段落。例如,当学生遇到“Every dog has his day.”这句话,笔者首先举例说明美国人对狗的态度,这使得学生很感兴趣,而且很容易就理解了句子。有一篇文章如此描述了狗在美国人心目中的位置:虽然来自其他文化背景的人认为狗是食物,但美国人不吃狗肉。在美国狗作为宠物对人们来说很重要。人们通常认为狗是家庭的一员,有时几乎象孩子一样。
此外,狗还有预防犯罪的作用,窃贼一般不去有狗的人家,因为狗会吠叫而且会攻击企图入室的陌生人。显然,狗作为人们的伴侣有预防犯罪的作用使得食狗在美国成为一种禁忌。通过这段文字,学生知道在英语中“狗”蕴含着嘉奖的意思。通过以上例子,我们可以清楚地看到,在教学中目的语的文化背景知识和语言学习一样重要。语言教学的目的就是帮助学生具有交际能力。当然,实现此目的的最好方法是让学生生活在目的语社区中,以便他们能够讲流利而地道的英语。但事实上只有极少数学生有机会与母语者练习英语,绝大多数学生是从英语老师那里学英语的。问题是,大多数英语教师是在国内培训的,为了更有效地教英语,他们也急需文化方面的培训。
在这种情况下,要使学生更好的理解文章和交际,我们应该做些什么呢?最有效的方法可能是教师应接受社会文化知识培训,在学生需要时随时提供帮助。学生也应通过各种渠道,如,讲座,讨论,角色扮演,录像带,阅读资料等,了解目的语的文化知识,以便在交际中充分利用。文化背景知识有很广阔的覆盖面,包括文化知识,历史哲学,宗教,艺术,科技等。文化背景知识可能会成为交际中相互理解的障碍,有时在阅读和交际中我们发现没有任何语言困难却很难了解语言的确切意思。对目的语文化知识的缺乏可能会导致交际的失败。例如:
①一位在中国教了两年学的英国教师正走在通往学校大礼堂的路上去看电影。在路上他遇见了一位中国学生。按中国人的习惯,学生礼貌的问道,“您要去看电影吗?”这位外国老师感到很惊讶,他想“你明知道我要去大礼堂看电影,为什么还要问这个问题?”因此,他认为:这是一个非常愚蠢的问题(胡文仲,1982)。这个例子说明,在跨文化交际中,中国式的表达礼貌的方式不总是被理解和赏识的。因此,在一定情境下恰当的汉语在英语情境下可能会导致消极的结果。
②学生在交谈时往往相互问一些如此的问题:What's yourname? How old are you? Where do you come from? How many peopleare there in your family? 据说一位美国妇女来上海教英语,在被告知人民公园有英语角后她去了那儿。后来在被问及她对英语角的感受时,她不快的回答道:“我觉得我好象是在海关或警察局。”因为除了以上问题,她还被问及了:“What does your husband do?How much do you earn in China?”(胡文仲,1982)
这些问题语法上都是正确的,但问题是英语国家的人非常珍视他们的隐私。许多问题除了他们的密友和家人外在本族文化中是不会被问及的。更为糟糕的是,有时会以文化冲突而结束.因此,外语教学不仅是教语言而且是教文化。鉴于此,交际能力应包括五个方面:听,说,读,写和社会文化能力。
以上例子不可能将所有案例都概括其中,但有一点是十分清楚的:那就是文化背景知识在大学英语教学中扮演着重要的角色。这就要求教师在教学中充分意识到其重要性并以各种方法来加强学生的文化背景知识学习,以促进学生的语言学习和交际能力。此外,如果学生对文化背景知识了解甚少,蕴含在文化意义中的词和表达方式,成语,习语,禁忌语和委婉语也会成为语言学习者的学习障碍,这有待于英语教育者进一步探讨和研究。
[1]胡文仲。文化教学与文化研究[J].外语教学与研究,1992,(2)。
[2]胡文仲。文化差异与外语教学[J].外语教学与研究,1982,(4)。
[3]戚雨村。语言文化对比[J].外语研究,1992,(2)。
[4]蒲小君。外语教学与跨文化交际技能[J].外语界,1991,(2)。
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Widdowson把认知体系(schemas,或schema)描述为“cognitive constructs which allow for the organization of information in long-term memory(1983)即能对长期记忆中的信息进行组织的认知体系。下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的:母语和第二语言阅读的文化差异与认知体系相关论文。仅供大家参考!
母语和第二语言阅读的文化差异与认知体系全文如下:
〔摘要〕母语阅读与第二语言或外语的阅读之间尽管有许多共同的基本要素,但阅读过程却差异很大。令人感兴趣的问题为是否存在着两个平行发挥作用的认知过程,或着是否存在着对两种语言的处理都适应的策略。本文将着力探讨母语与第二语言的阅读的异同之处,尤其是在文化方面的差异,如语言文化内容或背景知识认知体系,形式上的(或字面的)认知体系、语言学(或语言)认知体系等。
〔关键词〕文化差异;认知体系;处理策略
阅读能力是第二语言学习中公认的最稳定、最持久的模式。换言之,学习者虽然可以运用刚学得的技能,但更多地是运用现有的能力水平去理解文本。无论是在母语还是第二语言的语境中,阅读都包含读者、文本和读者与文本间的互动等内容,尽管母语的阅读与第二语言或外国语阅读之间存在着许多共同的重要基本因素,但是其阅读过程差异很大。引人感兴趣的问题是有没有两个并行发挥作用的认识过程,或着有没有同时适应两种语言的处理策略。尽管人们有这些兴趣点,但是由于第二语言阅读的研究与母语的阅读相关意义不大,前者甚至被一些人简单地视为后者的自然派生,对第二语言阅读的研究经常被排除在外。
例如,第二语言的阅读时常被视为用母语进行同样任务的一个较慢的版本而已。这种理解意味着第二语言任务无非是以一种行为模式取代另一种行为模式。我们不仅要明确母语与第二语言的阅读过程有许多相同之处这一事实,更重要的是要知道还有许多不同因素在起作用,大量复杂的变量使对这两种语言的处理差异很大。因为大量的复杂变量使母语的阅读过程基本上难以观察,所以教师们在课堂上需要努力了解学生的阅读行为并能够帮助他们理解那些行为。
既然这些因素会影响第二语言语境中的阅读,教师就应尽可能多地了解其读者的文化、语言和教育背景等。本文将探讨母语阅读与第二语言阅读的异同,尤其是在文化因素方面:内容(即背景知识)认知体系(schema),形式(即文章的)认知体系、语言学(或语言)认知体系等。尽管这一领域的研究需要包含大量文学知识,而此处又不可能完全谈到,但本人仍希望本文的讨论能为读者提供了解这一领域的一个视角。
认知体系的类型让我们首先来明确一下认知体系的概含。Widdowson把认知体系(schemas,或schema)描述为“cognitive constructs which allow for the organization of information in long-term memory(1983)即能对长期记忆中的信息进行组织的认知体系。库克认为“大脑在文本中的关键词短语或语境的刺激下会激活一种知识的认知体系”。Widdowson和Cook都对schema的认知特点加以强调,认为认知是使我们把正在吸收的信息与已知信息联系起来。其中已知信息含有对整个世界的理解,从日常知识到很专业的知识,以及语言结构知识和文本形式等语言知识。除了使我们能够更节省地组织信息和知识以外,认知体系还能使我们能够预测口语和书面语是否会持续下去。文本的第一部分可激活一个认知体系,即唤醒一个尚未被下面的内容确认或否认的认知体系,对认知体系理论的研究大大地促进了对阅读理解机制的了解和利用。
研究者们已经证实了若干类型的认知体系。其中内容认知体系是读者对文化背景或对世界的了解,它为读者提供了文化比较的基础。形式认知体系,通常被称为文本认知体系,是指书面文本的组织形式和修辞结构,包括各种不同文体类型和体裁的知识,不同文本的组织形式、语言结构、词汇、语法、及正式或非正式文体等。形式认知体系涉及的是语篇层次,而语言学或语言认知体系则包含单词识别所需要的解码特征及其在句子中的组织形式。第一语言读者能通过反复的例句,把本不是他们自身语言结构的词纳入某种语言模式或猜出其含义。第二语言认知体系的形成基本上遵循同样的模式。
从以上讨论可以看出,认知体系在理解母语文本及第二语言文本中都起着很重要的作用。比如,我们可以推定,读者无论以母语还是第二语言阅读,只要熟悉文本的内容、形式和语言等认知体系,就能对文本有较多的理解;
但是,如果一个第二语言读者不具备这种知识,那他就可能因认知的障碍而理解甚少。对此我们将在后面进一步说明。内容认知体系,或者说背景知识方面文化取向也是影响第二语言或外语阅读的重要因素。Johnson(1982)等都曾对此进行过阐述。但许多研究这种认知体系的作用或背景知识的方法都只不过是Carrell1987年试验的变化而已。接受这次实验的有28名信奉伊斯兰教的阿拉伯人和24名来自拉美的信奉天主教的学生。这些学生的英语都处于中上等水平,并参加了中西部某所大学组织的英语强化训练。实验要求每人读两篇文章,一篇关于伊斯兰教,一篇关于天主教。每篇文章的修辞格式或者组织严谨,或者不为人熟悉。读完文章后,每人要做一项选择题,并默写出文章内容。
对他们的回忆方法及理解成绩的分析表明,认知体系明显影响把英语作为第二语言的学生的理解和记忆。他们对所阅读的文本越熟悉,文章与其民族的文化特征越相似,阅读内容就越容易得到理解和记忆。进一步研究表明,读者的内容认知体系要比他们的形式认知体系对理解和记忆的影响大得多。如前所述,在Carrel的研究中,当接受试验者对文本的内容和语言形式都很熟悉时,记忆的就最多。但若只熟悉两者之一,因内容不熟悉而造成的难度会更大一些。
Steffensen和Joag-Dev在1984年也做了类似的研究实验。他们选用两篇用英语写成的描写婚礼的文章,一篇描写美国人的婚礼,另一篇描写印度(次大陆)的婚礼。然后让一些把英语当作第二语言的印度学生和把英语作为母语的美国学生阅读并记忆描写的内容。研究发现,对关于本民族文化的那篇文章的理解比另一篇要精确得多。尽管有学生声称语言本身容易理解,但不熟悉异域文化的都是记忆起来比较困难的重要原因。
Johnson(1981)则以英语水平中等的46名伊朗大学生为实验对象,研究了文章的文化渊源对其阅读理解的影响。每个学生读两篇文章,分别源于伊朗和美国民间传说的英语小故事。一半学生阅读未经改编过的,另一半学生阅读改编过的。测试的方式是选择题,目的是检验其理解程度。同时还让另外19名美国学生阅读并记忆文章内容,以作比较。结果显示,故事的文化来源要比文本的句法或语义的复杂性对理解的影响远远大得多。在另一项研究中,Johnson(1982)对学生回忆一篇有关万圣节的文章的情况进行了比较。72名拥有大学水平的学生阅读了关于万圣节主题的一段文章。从受试者近期对习俗的经验来看,其中既有不为他们熟悉的也有熟悉的。
一些受试者琢磨了文本中的一些不熟悉的词。对礼仪的回忆结果显示,此前的文化经验使读者对理解关于万圣节这种熟悉的信息有所准备。然而直接面对不熟悉的词汇却似乎并没有对他们的阅读理解产生多大影响。Kang(1992)也进行了一次有趣的研究,检查了第二语言读者通过特定的文化背景知识从第二语言文本中过滤信息的能力。韩国学过高级英语的大学毕业生阅读了故事并回答了相关问题。一份评价其理解和推理能力的口头礼仪试验表明,其文化特定认知体系和推理方法会对文本理解产生影响。尽管对于文化如何构成背景知识从而影响阅读等问题的变量和因素尚未完全明了,但是关于背景知识的重要性和内容认知体系对阅读理解的整体作用的共识却已经形成。
许多研究已经探讨了与阅读理解相关的文本认知体系的作用,其中大多采用了相似的方法:先让参与试验者阅读文本,然后让他们主要以书写的方式回忆所得信息。其中包括识别文本固有的结构(如说明文中的比较和对比,问题与答案,普通版本与书内插入空白页的故事等)、研究者对所回忆的信息中如介词的数量和故事各部分的时间顺序等特殊变量进行研究分析。研究表明,在大多数情况下,不同类型的文本结构会对理解和回忆产生影响。一些研究也显示,在对所提供的文本结构的回忆质量方面,不同的语言群体也可能会存在差(Carrell,1984)。比如Carrel的研究表明,阿拉伯人对含有比较结构的说明文的记忆最好,对描述性和问题答案型的文章的记忆稍差些,最差的是对前因后果型的文章的记忆;亚洲人对问题答案型和前因后果型的文本记忆最好,最差的是比较结构或描述性文本。然而只有经过对语言背景与文本结构的相互作用进行进一步研究以后,这些结果才会有参考价值。即使不考虑上述研究结果,了解文本的组织结构在不同的文化中的显著差异对促进文化交流也具有重大意义。
Stone(1985)曾做过研究,旨在探讨在进行英语文本阅读时,与西班牙语不同的英语模式是否会对那些把英语作为第二语言学习的人的理解力产生显著的影响。为此一些具有英语普通五级水平的读者被随意地分别安排到最初说西班牙语和英语的小组里。他为此设计了九个故事,分为三种不同的模式:相似、中等相似和不同。测试方式包括复述文本内容和做阅读理解题。结果表明,在复述测试中,对那些与学生的最初语言完全不同的故事的阅读成绩最差,随着语言模式相似程度的降低,口头阅读错误也在相应地增多。这些结果支持着这样一个论点,即那些与读者所预期的语言模式相违背的文本可以对阅读理解产生破坏性影响。
在过去几年里,对比修辞学开始出现,它的核心研究领域是第一语言的语篇规约和修辞结构对第二语言的使用,以及认知和文化方面的语义转移数量、尤其是与写作相关的转移数量的影响。对比修辞学的目标,在于识别第二语言作者在写作中遇到的问题,并参照第一语言的修辞策略来解释他们。很明显,文本结构中的修辞差异能够导致阅读障碍。写作风格上的不同之处。比如:美国学生经常批评法国作家的文章太抽象和过于理论化,缺乏美国文章传统中的具体细节和修辞模式;汉语文章经常被描述为冗长罗嗦、修饰过多,在西方人看来缺乏衔接性;而日本人的作品则以文本组织形式多异而著名。他们似乎特别喜欢从具体到一般这种谋篇方式,即把一般性结论置于段末。(Connor,1996)此外,在本族语与目的语的写作体系和修辞结构之间的差异也可以成为影响阅读的另一重要因素。
正字法体系间的差异也很大,一些语言可能有很多象征符号字,而另一些语言却可能数量有限。例如:汉字书法是一个与英语完全不同的书写体系,它由许多具有象征意义的文字组成,具有强烈的美学因素。阿拉伯语也有一个书写和阅读都是从右向左独特做法。这些写作体系中的种种差异都可能给第二语言读者造成困难。毫无疑问,进行第二语言阅读的学生将会面对这些第一语言学者从未遇到过的困难。总之,教师在进行阅读教学时,必须对学生进行第二语言阅读的相关材料的结构予以详细说明,使学生明确其文本和语言的文化框架发展趋势。Connor(1996)在对该问题进行广泛调查后认为,本族语和目标语之间的差异类型可能会对文本的理解产生干扰。
母语与第二语言的阅读既有相似之处也存在巨大的差异。两种语境下的阅读都需要了解内容、形式以及语言等认知体系。同时阅读也是读者和文本之间通过互动确立意义的过程,即读者运用思维活动从文本中构建文本的意义。这些活动通常被称为阅读策略或阅读技巧。成功的第一和第二语言读者能够有意或无意地采取特定的行为来提高对文本的理解效果。无论是自上而下还是从下到上的策略他们都会适时采用。
Goodman(1996)认为读者在进行阅读时,会同时完成一个连续进行的过程:预测即将出现的信息,验证和确认预测,等等。这种阅读过程是一个从不断输入的文本中连续不断地取样的过程。读者不是逐字地进行,而是借助背景知识和预测、确认等各种策略来理解文本。一个人达到这种程度时,一般可能会说;第一语言与第二语言的阅读可以是相似的。尽管如此,正如以上研究所示,第二语言阅读实质上与第一语言阅读差异是很大的.
第二语言是指“语言学习的历时性,任何在本族语之后获得的语言”(Stern,1983,P,12)。该定义所说的本族语的含义是一个已经牢固发展起来了的本族语。而第二语言则意味着该语言很可能并不在本国内说。此外,第二语言可以包含一个在句法、语音、语义和修辞上与目标语明显不同的语言基础。如上所述,认知体系在阅读理解中的作用很大。一个第二语言读者如果对建立在文化基础上的知识内容认知体系不熟悉,或不具备第一语言读者所具备的语言学基础,就会在文本中遇到困难。
这些困难的大小由两种语言间的差异而定。如果一个第二语言学生的本族语与目标语的句法结构差别很大,就需要一个较高层次的认知重建过程。(Segelowitz1986),Grabe(1991)也指出,学生开始第二语言阅读时的知识基础与他们开始第一语言阅读时不同。例如:第一语言读者在进行实际阅读前已经拥有了充足的词汇基础,认识了几千个词汇和本族语的一些语法知识。而第二语言阅读者并没有这些优势。另外,第二语言读者虽然可以拥有语言技巧,但他们时常不具备细致的社会文化技巧。这时常意味着一个第二语言读者并不具备以纯正而特定的文化去理解文本的能力,是一种与内容认知体系缺乏相关的观点。阅读的结果理解,就建立在语言数据之上。
经过以上讨论,我们就可以得出双语言读者的特征。双语言阅读即一个人能够用两种语言进行阅读,能够并且成功地阅读意味着对文本理解能力、阅读策略和技巧的运用和相关语言的语言环境的判定等。
例如:一个会西班牙语和英语的双语读者就意味着他能够成功地用这两种语言阅读,能够借助以下一些阅读行为增加阅读理解能力和阅读效果。该读者习惯于读前先浏览,借助标题、副标题、图表等语境线索,边读边寻找并格外注意重要信息,努力把文本中的要点联系起来以求对理解全文,激活并运用以前学过的关于内容形式和语言等认知体系的知识来解释文本,重新考虑和修正那些建立在文本内容之上,关于文本意义的假说,尝试者根据文本进一步推出新结论。
确定未明白的词义,检查对文本信息的理解是否正确,进而归纳全文的主要观点。该读者还可以运用一些策略如:释义、重复、做笔记、总结、自问等来记忆文本,搞清楚文本各部分间的关系,识别文本结构;在对文本的理解不能顺利进行下去时,及时改变阅读策略。
最后,该读者还可评估文本的质量,读完一部分后进行反思和信息加工,并对所获得知识使用给以预测和设计。尽管以上所列内容并不一定全面,排序也不一定合理,但却实实在在地对一个成功的双语读者的种种特征提供了一个描述。这类读者进行任何一种语言的阅读时都通常使用这些阅读策略和做法。
此外,不管文本、语言或正字法等情况如何,双语者都能培养起对付不同语系和文本的策略和结构,所以双语读者多灵活而博学,熟悉许多适应每一种语言环境的技巧和策略,因而在他们看来任何一种语言的阅读都与其他阅读无异。
总之,文本着力探讨了第一和第二语言阅读的异同之处。在思考文化差异因素的基础上,重点讨论了认知结构的作用及其与第一、第二语言阅读理解的关系。当然,还有许多本文未提及的造成两种语言阅读差异的其他因素,但愿本文的讲座能够有助于解释文化差异对这种差异的影响作用。
在了解两种过程相似的同时,还必须注意到不同语言的学生对阅读过程中遇到的困难也是相似的。读者,尤其是第二语言读者,可以更好地了解这些相似性,教师们应当经常询问他们的阅读内容和阅读方法,使学生自己也能够从第一和第二语言阅读经历中找到有益的启示。
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以象形为基础的汉字,其形体构造体现出了具有汉民族特色的文化现象。
今天读文网小编要与大家分享的是语言文学论文:汉字与汉文化的关系。具体内容如下,希望能够够帮助到大家:
汉字与汉文化的关系
中华民族五千年的文明之所以能够保存并流传后世,这主要归功于汉字。汉字与汉文化密不可分,其构形及发展凝聚着汉民族深刻的文化内涵,积淀和保留着汉民族观察世界及其自身的思维成果和心智,其本身蕴涵和展示着一个丰富多彩的汉民族文化世界和精神世界。
人是群居动物,人类的实践活动都在一定的群体中进行,长期的群体生活形成的共同的行为和生活方式相沿成习,渐渐形成一种风俗。风俗文化是人类最早的文化现象之一,是一个民族特殊的文化意识形态,源于社会生活,随着社会的发展而变迁。
任何民族都有各自特有的风俗习惯,汉民族的独特风俗文化离现在已有几千年之久,但我们却可以从汉字及用汉字所记载的文献中窥见一斑。例如“穴居野处”“茹毛饮血”等词,真实而形象地再现了汉民族先民的居住条件和饮食方式。
汉民族的风俗中,最受重视的莫过于春节。春节是众多节日中最盛大的,贴红联、放鞭炮、吃饺子……习惯上又把过春节称为过年,那么“年”究竟是怎样来的呢?相传在远古时代,有一种猛兽叫“年”,逢新旧岁之交,就出来糟蹋庄稼,伤害人畜。一次,它又跑出来为非作歹,被一家门口晾的红衣服吓跑了,到了另一处又被灯光和爆竹声吓得抱头鼠窜。于是人们掌握了“年”的弱点。每至辞旧迎新之际,就贴红联,放鞭炮,拢柴火,把年吓跑。久而久之便成了过年的习俗。但这只是传说,其实“年”字,最初为“农作物生长周期”之意,由于汉字形体的楷化而失去了最初的意义。造字之初,“年”是谷穗沉沉下垂的形象,是收获的象征,所谓“五谷熟曰年”。农作物从播种到成熟是一个生长周期,庄稼成熟之时,人们不免要庆祝一番。从此,每当四季轮回一次之际,就出现这种庆祝丰收和和祭神祀祖的活动。但由于中国人的实用主义倾向,这种活动逐渐从娱神发展到自娱,久而久之便形成了一种约定俗成的节日,即“年”。今天的过年习俗就是由此演变而来,年的习俗反映出一种世俗的快乐。
任何一个汉字,都是一幅构思巧妙的图画,蕴藏着一些汉民族远古的风俗习性,渗透到人类生活的每个角落,并随着社会的发展而不断向前发展演变,与时俱进。
以象形为基础的汉字,其形体构造体现出了具有汉民族特色的文化现象。由于汉字具有表意作用,视觉形象鲜明,有助于启发我们形象性的联想,因此用汉字记录的诗歌,就像一幅幅鲜活生动的画面,读者能够抛开语音语法层面而直接进入诗情画意中。因此中国古代诗歌富于形象性,意境含蓄优美,是汉字自身的特点形成了古代诗歌特有的形式美。
《诗经》是我国古代诗歌的瑰宝,基本都是四言的,而《楚辞》是在四言基础上发展而来,大体上是六言加上兮字,兮字起凑足音节、使音节整齐的作用。例如:
蒹葭苍苍,白露为霜。
所谓伊人,在水一方。《诗经?蒹葭》
余幼好此奇服兮,年既老而不衰。
带长铗之陆离兮,冠切云之崔巍。《楚辞?涉江》
古体诗和近体诗大多数是五言和七言,如律诗,绝句,五古,七古等(七古例外,有时在七言句中夹杂一些杂言的句子)。律诗每首八句,有五言和七言的;绝句每首四句,也分五言和七言。“五言诗”每行五个字,如唐代诗人王勃的五律诗《送杜少甫之任蜀州》:“城阙辅三秦, 风烟望五津。……”全诗共八句,每句五个字,长短相同,字数相等,整齐匀称;“七言诗”每行七个字,如苏轼的《题西林壁》:“横看成岭侧成峰,远近高低各不同。不识庐山真面目,只缘身在此山中。”整首诗共四句,形式整齐。字字如诗,句句如画,无限的意蕴孕于其中。
对仗是汉语律诗的一个基本要求。对仗即对偶,是指说话或写作时,某些文字,在邻近的地方有跟它成双配对的文字出现。平仄相间,抑扬顿挫,形成一种和谐的声律美。如杜甫《春望》:
国破山河在,(仄仄――平平――仄)
城春草木深。(平平――仄仄――平)
上下两句平仄、节奏相对,每句有三个节奏点,平仄相间,抑扬交错,节奏鲜明。
对仗的文字相互衬托,互相照应,使所表达的意义更加丰富、精炼、确切。声音上,对偶的文字彼开此合,彼收此放,声音抑扬,和谐悦耳。利用汉字的特点,也形成了许多汉民族文化特色的修辞,除对偶之外还有顶真、回文、析字,复叠等,使诗歌无论在形式上还是意蕴上都独具特色。
对联又称楹联,采诗词曲赋骈文之精华,是汉字文化和文学的派生物。对联的基础是对偶修辞格,在对仗方面有严格的要求。在相对位置上要虚实相同,平仄相反。如:
墙上芦苇,头重脚轻根底浅。
山间竹笋,嘴尖皮厚腹中空。
“墙”对“山”,“芦苇”对“竹笋”,“头”对“嘴”,“脚”对“皮”,“根”对“腹”,是名词对名词;“重”对“尖”,“轻”对“厚”,“浅”对“空”,是形容词对形容词;“上”对“间”,“底”对“中”,是方位词对方位词。“墙上”与“山间”是方位词组;“芦苇”与“竹笋”是联合式;“头重”与“嘴尖”、“脚轻”与“皮厚”都是主谓式;“根底”与“腹中”都是方位词,而“根底浅”、“腹中空”又都是主谓结构。不但词类相同,虚实相当,字数相等,而且结构相应。当然,对联中也存在宽对,如:青山有幸埋忠骨,白铁无辜铸佞臣。
对联之美在于对称、对比和对立的统一,讲究对仗与平仄,声律抑扬和谐,因而具有对称平衡之美。而且对联具有广泛性,公开性,形式灵活。随着社会的发展,对联的应用已经渗透到社会生活的诸多方面,如春节、装饰、婚丧、广告等。虽然对联只是汉字文化长河中的一个小小的支流,但却有旺盛的生命力,是汉文化的活细胞。
由汉字的特点而形成的具有汉民族特色的文化事项是形形色色的,汉文化之所以具有如上所述的特色,当归因于汉字。汉字是汉民族之根,本身有极其丰富的内涵,是我们探究汉文化,研究汉民族的绝好材料。
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除了习语者语言、习得因素和个体差异之外,现在习得论也研究课堂教学的习得作用。在早的习得论者以克拉申为主的一派,承认课堂教学学得的语言知识对语言输出有监查作用,现在习得论者大都认为课堂教学也能习得。而在习得论者原来的理念中,课堂教学至多只能学习语言知识。下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的:语言知识是外语教学的立脚点相关论文。仅供大家参考!
语言知识是外语教学的立脚点全文如下:
外语教学的内涵是教学生学会外语。学生是人类新生代的精英群,教者自应借鉴人类学习外语的经验,力求按照人类学习外语的规律去组织他们的学习活动。人类学习外语几千年了,Louis G.Kelly写过一本巨著25 Centuries of Language Teaching,阐述500B.C.—1969年的语言教学方法(*国外文献中的语言教学包括母语、二语、外语教学,实际内容多为二语、外语教学;本文以下选称外语教学)。就是把外语教学的起始时间放在古希腊的旺盛时期。而实际上人类早在两河文化时期就开始学习外语了,只是那时尚无固定的教学形式,主要通过地中海沿岸的经商活动进行;其重大结果是传播、发展了腓尼基字母。腓尼基字母产生希腊字母,希腊字母再产生拉丁字母(罗马字母)和期拉夫字母(基利尔字母和格拉戈尔字母)。拉丁字母因拉丁语而传遍欧州,使英语也废弃了自己的鲁纳字母而采用了拉丁字母。字母是负载语言的元件,语言是文化的载体。
所以,如果没有由腓尼基主导的地中海沿岸“经商—习语”活动,被尊为人类文化重要源头的希腊文化都可以保存下来,或者是另一副历史面貌。可见,怎样教会人们学会外语是一件大事,弄清其立脚点是按规律进行外语教学所不可忽视的前提性工作。
人类究竟是怎样学习外语的呢?从史实看,地中海沿岸的“经商—习语”时期所学的目的语本身尚无规范的三要素结构,经商又是没有强制力的自由活动,语言教学只是经商的手段和副产物,所以只能通过交流沟通的接触活动,像母语学习那样自然学会。推想起来,可能有点像当代交流观点所主张的交际法那样:通过交流学习语言,学语时以交际沟通为目的,沟通了,也就学到了语言。由于当时的学语者虽是为了解决生活问题而学习,但并无今天二语学习者所处的固定语言环境(*目的语社会和信息源随着经商的船队而流动),所以他们的具体学习活动只能是接触模仿,走“经验积累”的学语之路。
继承发展希腊文化的是罗马。罗马(西罗马)凭其军事力量统治整个欧州,拉丁语也随之用于全欧,并且没有随西罗马之衰败而退出欧洲。相反,拉丁语在欧州“横行”了一千多年;先是作为各国的官方语言、宗教语言和科学语言,取代了多个本族语的地位;直到文艺复兴兴起以后,才逐渐退居外语的地位。但在很长一段时期拉丁语仍被视为人文科学的基础。比如,17世纪之前英国仍把Grammar一词理解为学习拉丁语;18世纪以后,德国小学生还以没学好拉丁语变格为耻。在漫长的中世纪及中世纪之前,由于封建统治和拉丁语语法的繁杂,以致教学拉丁语只能是指令式宣讲的,走“规则宣讲”的理性主义的学语之路;采用过词汇翻译教学法和语法翻译教学法。后世学者举了一个典型的例子,说明当时语言教学理性化到只重规则而不计其他。
T.:“翻译这个句子‘棕色的牛坐在树枝上吱吱地叫’”。
Ss.:“什么?哪有这样的事!”(*牛会坐在树枝上还会像鸟叫?)
T.:“没有那样的事不要紧;我们不是学习句子的内容”。
当然,在逾千年的教学实践中,也发生过不同的改革。其中影响较大的有两次。第一次是11世纪,改革内容主要是将讲解语法的单句或课文改为对话,即以对话形式背诵语法例句。这隐含了培养交流技能的意图。第二次是16—17世纪,正当文艺复兴之后,改革内容主要是以连贯课文为中心,删减语法例句,提高本族语地位和倡导学习听、说、写、读的技能。这期间产生了许多影响深远的外语教学法观点、方法。比如,Roger Aschan(1515—1566)主张的来回翻译,用归纳法教语法;Joseph Webbe(1560—1633)通过课文学语法,通过练习培养语言习惯,重视听力训练和培养交际沟通,能够读、写、说、使用翻译而不求等值。虽然此次改革并未改动拉丁语教学法的理性主义基础,但已为近代语法翻译法和直接法的兴起奠定了路基。尤其是夸美纽斯(J.A.Comenius,1592—1670)在《感性世纪图解》和《语言和科学入门》二书中所表现的经验主义的学语观点,对后世的影响极大。
就在这个时期,西欧各种现代语言逐渐进入外语教学领域,各个语种(尤其是英语)的语法也日趋规范,到18世纪末便形成了由J.V.Meidinger等人主导的近代语法翻译法。这种方法也被称作The Sentence?based Approach to Language Teaching。显然,它是一种理性主义教学法,而不是夸美纽斯等人传播的经验主义教学法。这可能与工业革命在18世纪末产生有关。因为工业革命的人文本质就是革感性的命,走理性化的道路。
到了19世纪末期,资本主义的发展导致了西欧工业国在海外争夺市场和殖民地,口头交流成了外语教学的首要目的;而且最宽广的教学区域是市场所在地,其教学情景有点类似公元前地中海沿岸的“经商——习语”。因而,1882年爆发了欧州外语教学改革运动,从而形成了要求语义与实物直接挂钩的直接教学法。它当然是经验主义的教学法。
到了20世纪40年代,由于对轴心国战争的需要,结构主义语言学家研制了听说法/结构法。这种方法以句型操练为其独有的特点,句型又被看作语言结构的缩影。因此,听说法应是一种理性主义的教学法。
及至20世纪70年代,由乔姆斯基语言学的影响和区域经济发展的需要,产生了意念法并发展成为交际法。交际法要求按学生需要取材,通过交流学习语言,这又走到了接触积累的经验主义教学法圈子。但交际法立论基点(*乔姆斯基理论)又是理性主义的,所以交际法产生之后就不稳定;先是争论,后是“各显神通”地提出不同的变化。一直到20世纪80年代以来尚无具有新颖教学观点的教学法派产生。综观国内外语/语言教学的热点活动,仍在经验主义圈子里打转。
通过上述简略的历史回顾,我们可以看到,人类教学外语的道路,可从哲学高度概括为两条:理性主义的和经验主义的。多少年来,人们一直在从理性主义或经验主义出发建构一种理想的外语教学。理性主义的教学以知识为立脚点是不言而喻的;因为它的特点就在于运用知识去认识事物,依靠知识从己知认识未知。所以各个理性主义的外语教学法无不重视语言知识,尤其是语法知识。至于经验主义的语言教学,其活动是通过接触模仿,积累经验。但从认识过程看,经验升为理论(*虽然可能是隐性的),才能保证认识的不断发展并使认识主体取得创新能力;故经验主义的语言教学之能够成功的机制,也包含了语言知识的作用。所以不同的经验主义知识更不用说了,这突出地表现于直接法主张用归纳法教语法。交际法在用意念——功能取代教学语法的企图失败之后,也主张采用“具体用法”、“语言意识”、“隐性语法”等等方法去教语法。只是交际法的产生是为了寻找一条理想的教学法以适应现实发展的需要。
交际教学法始于20世纪70年代初期,它是适应两种现实需要而产生的:一方面,经济发展提出了普及外语的需要;另一方面,科技的高速发展使人类应学的东西越来越多而必须提高学语速度。两种需要的综合使人们在哲学观点上走向了现实主义,企求从满足现实需要着眼去创造外语教学法,而不像交际法以前那样从改进既有外语教学法着眼去构思新的教学法思想。所以交际法的实质是一种适应现实需要的外语教学法思想。
我们这样说有五点根据:1从操作层面看,交际法可以概括为“急用先学,学用结合,立竿见影”;2从立论根据说,它曾企图用意念、功能范畴取代传统的教学语法,从而落实因乔姆斯基学说而引见的语言习得论(内在论);3从建构目的说是为了解决欧共体在经济发展中的语言障碍;4从使用结果看,据《人民日报》1998年9月2日6版报道,经过20多年的交际法教学实践,“欧洲青年人会讲两种以上外语者为数并不多,在成年人中间,可用一门外语阅读者,也只占45%”;590年代以来产生了实现交际法理想的模式,这些模式大都持弱交际观,可看作交际法的变体,变去变来都在想提出一种更加简明易行的“急用先学,学用结合,立竿见影”的模式。但截至目前,仍不能认为已有一种可以达到这种理想的模式或路子。因为交际法的根植于理性主义(*乔姆斯基学说),而其生长却采用了经验主义(*通过交际学交际)。这造成了交际法提出之后的混乱情况。
美国亚历桑那大学刘骏教授把交际法以后的教学法统称为“后教学法时代的教学法”(Methods in the Post?Methods Era)。他根据自己所作的调查研究,认为这个时代是交际法、折衷法、近代语法翻译法、直接法、听读法、暗示教学法、默教法、全身反应法、自然途径、集体语言学习法等10种方法的自由选用。笔者认为,这种选用正是着眼经济和科技高速发展之需要而进行的实性探索。这种探索不是追求改进某一种教学法,它表现了人类在教学外语中正在力求适应现实的需要,而提出自己的理想。所以交际法的内容基本上与在早的教学法极不联系。反观交际法以前的教学法却主要是为了改革外语教学现实而提出自己的理想。比如,直接法是为了改革翻译法,听说法是为了改革直接法。不过,宏观地看,改革现实的需要是加快和普及教学外语,适应现实的需要也是加快和普及外语。外语作为语言不能脱离三要素,外语作为实际运用于交际之中的言语(parole,speech)或语言行为(performace),须得生成于语言系统(system of language,即语言)或语言能力(competence,指掌握构成某一语言所有话语的基础的代码的能力);而语言系统和语言能力实际是一种语言知识系统。所以,只要我们承认学习外语不可能象鹦鹉学舌那样学一句用一句,那就必须通过学习语言知识以养成目的语语言系统或语言能力。因此,排拆语言知识的外语教学是不可能存在的。即使是采用经验主义教学法,也得从接触积累中自觉或不自觉地去归纳提炼出语言知识。
语言习得论推动了外语教学研究,也在一定程度上造成了外语教学的混乱。
语言习得论源自乔姆斯基在20世纪50年代提出的语言学理论。这个理论提出了心智主义(Mentalism)的认识论思想,对于语言是什么和人类怎样获得语言作了全新的解释:语言是人类独有的一种种属属性,它是由人类的遗传基因规定下来的一种特定物质状态,存在于大脑中,在后天语言环境的作用下,发育成长而进入一种稳定状态,先获得某种具体语言的语言知识,从而具体运用该语言的能力;再由语言能力生成无穷无尽的语言行为。因此,语言知识或语言能力是人脑中不依靠学习而能自然构建起来的一种系统,是语言学习的内容。但它是一种物质状态,故不能简单地解释说“语言是用于交际的符号系统”。这样,语言知识/能力的形成便是在后天语言经验的作用下,从元始状态(initial state)进入一种稳定状态(steady state)的过程和结果,而不是靠“刺激—反应”训练而形成的习惯。这个理论推演开来,就认为人类借助大脑中存在的先天语言属性,形成语言能力(competence),有了语言能力便能生成语言行为。这种先天语言属性被称为包含了所有语言之普通原则的普遍语法,普遍语法体现语言习得机制(L.A.D.)。所以人类获得语言是一种生理现象,既不依靠认知活动,也不受生活环境的影响。其内部过程应是固定不变的,只是人们尚未探明。这样,描述获得语言的过程和描述语言的发展就不宜使用学习,而应该使用习得(获得,acquisition)。那样才可表明,获得语言是在接触到的目的语材料激活固定在普通语法中的参数后,逐渐形成的语言能力的结果。所以习得是一个内在的遵循一定程序规律的自然过程。反之,学习却是一个外力灌输的过程,是把动物学习规律用之于人类学语的过程,是不符合人类语言本质和发展规律的活动。从这种演释出发,人们开始研究语言,并有意无意地把语言习得一语看作科学概念,而把语言学习看作是前科学概念。
西方研究语言习得的人员很多,其著作多不胜读,观点之多也难备述。但互相矛盾、前后矛盾的观点也不在少数。这些研究范围既广,内容也细致深入,对外语教学有其贡献。比如,对中介语的研究、对个体差异的研究以及使用实证研究方法等等。但他们始终或明或暗地以语言的内在生长论为基础,并且似乎忘了内在生长论的标志是习得者取得目的语的内在语法;忘了competence的基本含义是语言知识:忘了knowledge of language也表示实际使用语言的能力。他们脱离了语言知识这个立脚点,而又引用语言学习论的一些内容以求自圆其说。弄来弄去,以至对习得这个概念也没形成共识。比如,我国同行熟悉的、研究语言习得很有成就的学者Rod Ellis在所著The Study of Second Language Acquistion一书(1994年版)的绪论中就说:“...the nature of this object(*second language acquistioin) is far from clear....
In order to study how learners acquire a second language, a clear,operational definition of what is meant by the term‘acquistion’is needed. Unfortunately,researchers have been unable to agree on such a definition.‘Acquisition’can mean several things.有的学生甚至认为已无必要区分习得与学习。比如,美国奥本大学蒋楠教授2001年春介绍美国学者对此的一般看法时说:“习得一词各人用法不一,除了克拉申作了‘学习’和‘习得’的区别外,除非要强调这种区别,大多数情况下这两个词是互相替代的,没有什么区别。”
在这种情况下,西方学者抓住乔学认为后天语言经验对习得语言具有激活作用(triggering effect)和定型作用(shaping effect)大做文章,把语言习得论的内容向语言学习论扩展,或者说把语言学习论纳入语言习得论。所以,Rod Elilis也说,It(*acquisition)can take place in either a naturalistic or an instructional setting。但是,学习一般指经验的获得及行为变化的过程,而行为的变化是由经验获得引起的。经验之所以能引导行为的变化,在于它被概括出了可以指导行为的准则。这种概括表现为认识的成果,即知识。所以学习是以知识为立脚点的认识活动。因此习得论这种发展已从习语者习语的内、外活动,反映了知识是外语教学的立脚点。我们仍以上引Rod Ellis的著作为例,从此书所述语言习得研究的四个内容,我们便可看到习得论实际也或明或暗地以语言知识为习语的立脚点。(*为了清楚标示以下观点来自习得论者,在论述中把学习者一律称为习语者。)
1、习语者学到了什么。这是习得论关于习语者的描述,包含了习得论的主要研究方法。其内容是中介语的研究、错误分析、习得程序的认定、习语者语言的变化性和语用特征。这五方面不但离不了语言知识,而且必以知识为前提。比如,中介语是习语者学习中的语言,判断中介语发展水平及其特点的标准是语言知识,尤其是语法知识。错误分析中的识别错误离不了语法。习得程序的认定,主要是根据不同习语者掌握某些目的语语法、语音项目的先后顺序而推论习语者脑内的习得顺序,同样是以语言知识为立脚点。习语者语言的变化性主要研究他们在不同场合运用的不同语言结构和语体,如果离开语言知识,当然不可能发生。至于习语者语言的语用特征,既牵涉语用学,也涉及目的语的结构与功能。所以不论习语者习得了什么语言,都是以语言知识为立脚点的。
2、习语者怎样习得语言。这是对制约习得语言的外在因素和内在因素的解释。
(1)习语者的外在因素。首先是社会因素;主要是自然环境与教学环境。自然环境指目的语为习语者所在地的本族语、官方用语、族际通用语、多数人的母语。在这种环境下习得,存在按乔氏理论习得的可能;但习得的首要成果是内化目的语语法。其次是输入和交互作用,这种活动的效果取决于对输入或交互活动语料的理解与选择,如果不能理解或选择,输入必然中断,交互作用也联结不上来,而在外语教学中理解与选择的首要障碍是语言结构,如语法、词汇、语音等等。这反证语言知识应是外语教学的立脚点。
(2)习语者的内在因素。这是不能直接观察到的,影响习得效果的内隐因素。习得论系借助习语者输出的语言进行分析推论。共有三类因素:
首先是语言迁移。习得论认为迁移主要表示习语者建立第二语言体系之时第一语言特征的自动参入。最初他们认为这是行为主义的理论,否定了本族语的正、负迁移说。但20世纪80年代以后,他们从音位学、句法、语义、语用学各个方面论证了语言习得存在迁移:认为迁移是习得因素之一。比如,Odlin1989年说,there is a large and growing body of research that indicates that transfer is indeed a very important factor in second language acquisition。其他习得论者也纷纷研究形成迁移的原因。而迁移的内容主要是语言知识。这种见解与心理学对迁移的解释也是一致的。心理学的行为主义学习论与格式塔学习论都用到迁移。格式塔的关系迁移理论和布鲁纳的原理迁移论尤其重视学习者既有知识的迁移作用。所以习得论者承认迁移等于承认第一语言是习得二语的手段,而这种手段作用主要体现于语言知识能够作为获得外语的基础手段。
其次,习得论者已承认了认知的作用。这种作用存在于输入语料/信息以及输出时建构语言系统的心智活动之中;这意味着目的语的理解与产出都离不了认知活动。这样,习得论者就把中介语和习语者语言的变化都与认知活动挂钩了,从而远离了二语/外语在脑内自然生长的“经典性习得理论”。目前国外学者已根据二语习得认知论提出了多种习得模式,如竞技模式、功能模式等等,各种习得模式都在一定程度上以语言知识作为首要的习得内容。尤其是Andersen提出的思想和谐控制模式。Rod Ellis说,Adaptive Control of Thought Model sees language acquisition,like all other kinds of learning, as a process of procedualing ‘declarative knowledge’(i.e.knowledge stored as facts).
此外,习得论认定的习语者的内在因素就是语言的普遍现象。这有两个内容:一个是“经典习得论”所遵从的语言习得机制,即借助习语者天生的普遍语法内化目的语语法。另一个是从语言类型学出发,认为第一语言知识包含了目的语也含有的语言普遍性。因为输入的语料并不能给习语者提供形成目的语言要用到的全部语言规则所必需的信息,从而使习语者必须利用语言普遍性从第一语言的知识中获取所缺信息。所以,不论怎样解释语言普遍现象对习得的作用,习得语言知识是居先的。
除了描述习语者语言和解释习语者的外在、内在因素之外,习得论的另一重要内容是对习语者的研究。这主要是研究个体差异。个体差异可分两类:一为固定的个体差异,即年龄与习语潜能。鉴别这两种差异的标准主要是语法能力和发音能力。一为可变的个体差异,即动机和认知方式。动机的主要决定因素是习语者由于所处的社会环境的不同而产生的习语需要。如果习语者身处目的语社会之中,他们习语首位需要是用,如第二语言习语者。如果习语者身处于非目的语社会之中,他们的首位需要是掌握习得目的语的基础、手段,那就是语言知识。至于认知方式,不论是场独立型或场依赖型,其主导因素既包含个性差异,也包含习语者所处语言环境的影响,因为目的语环境在影响动力的同时,也影响认知方式;比如,第二语言习语者天天、时时都与第二语为本族语者接触,不大可能不采取场依赖型的认知方式;但外语习语者却不同了。所以对于外语习语者说,认知方式的特点也在很大程度上取决于语言知识的作用。
除了上述习语者语言、习得因素和个体差异之外,现在习得论也研究课堂教学的习得作用。在早的习得论者以克拉申为主的一派,承认课堂教学学得的语言知识对语言输出有监查作用,现在习得论者大都认为课堂教学也能习得。而在习得论者原来的理念中,课堂教学至多只能学习语言知识。
与欧美和一些前英美殖民地国家的二语教学或外语教学相比,在我国教学生学会外语具有许多特点。这些特点可以从教学客体、教学主体、教学环境等方面加以考察;其集中体现则是对语言知识学习的首位需要。下面分三部分阐述。
1.教学客体的特点
教学客体指目的语语言,如英语。虽然我国学生和外国人同样学习英语,但我国学生学习的是作为中国学校中一门科目的英语课;它受到各级学校课程结构的制约,因而具有以下特点:
(1)英/外语科和其他科目具有同样的教育任务并须包含人文教育的内容,这些须得通过知识的吸收与建构而完成。
(2)英/外语科学习的对象是外语,不是第二语言。外语是学生可能用到的工具,学生对之选择性大。二语则是学生的生活条件,学生对之选择性小。
(3)外/英语科开设于小学、中学、大学,目的连贯而学程不一定连贯:学生有的只能读小学、初中,有的只能读高中,有的只能读大专,有的可读到本科以上。所以我国学校的外语教学是分阶段完成的;并且各学段的毕业生都可能终止在校的学习,而在某一个时间自学外语或上学继续学习外语。这样,各级学校的外语教学都必须把可持续学习放在首要地位,而能保证可持续学习的语料,首先是语言知识。
(4)由于上述三个特点滋生出在教学对象方面的第四个特点,那就是学习内容有限。外语教学既不追求绝对的双语水平(ambilingual),也不可能像二语学习那样全面地面向生活。与“生活中需要什么就学什么”相反,外语课所学的目的语内容是相当有限的,因为它要求达到的只是相对的外语沟通水平。所以它需要学习再生力强的结构、中性的功能以及使用频率高的词汇;结合生活需要的内容中能占很小部分。从这些内容看,外语课的学习内容主要应立脚于语言知识。
2.教学主体的特点
教学主体指学习外语的学生。在这方面,我国学生具有四个特点。
(1)我国学外语的学生哪怕是小学初年级的学生,他们的思维能力已相对成熟,缺乏的是目的语语言形式。比如,我们小学一年级的学生在掌握汉语拼音之后,便能阅读“十万个为什么”以及具有相当难度的童话、故事等读物。如果不借助汉语拼音突破语言形式关,大致得在小学四、五年级以后才能阅读。在外语教学中这种思维实际超前于语言发展的情况,说明教学必须立脚于语言知识以尽快掌握目的语语言形式。
(2)我国学生学习外语的时间投入有限,不可能通过大量接触模仿去学会。儿童习得母语估计要用一万小时。根据全国初、高中英语教学调查1,我国中学生学习英语每周课内课外共投入6小时45分(*以每学时45分计,含不合规定而多用的时间,下同)。每学期以上课20周计共135学时,初、高中总共1620小时。小学每周约2小时,全程240小时。大学每周至多与中学等同,但仅2—3年,故全程约540—810小时。这样,我们的学生即使从小学一年级学到大学本科,至多能投入2400—2670小时。实际上还很可能投入不到这么多时间。因为课程标准规定中学、大学每周的英语课时仅四学时,目前每学时仅40分钟;每学期实际上课时间也不足20周。除了学校的课堂内外,我们的学生又很难得有其他接触外语的机会。因此我国学生唯有充分利用语言知识,以求学一用十。
(3)我国学生对于使用外语含有前瞻性,大多数学生只是为了将来的发展需要而学习外语。这使外语教学只宜把“学了要用”作为远景性目的,而不是现实目标。因此不必,也不可能主要在模拟交际中学习,而适宜以语言知识的学习作为起点。因为即使使用交际教学法,不少知名学者,如哈佛大学的里弗斯教授,也主张外语教学应从认知知识着手再进入产出,以取得技能;然后通过应对(interaction)去运用技能,以进入真实交际活动。
(4)我国的中华文化是一种大一统文化。这使我国有记载的几千年历史中,国家很少分裂。大一统一文化的一个特点是自上而下,由一般到特殊。在封建时代,人们的大小活动都以“圣旨”为依据;在当代则以“红头文件”为依据。虽然两者的内涵及其覆盖的阶级利益绝不相同,但自上而下的逻辑相同。世世代代按此逻辑活动,使我们的学生很自然地易于采用演绎式的学习方法,这也为外语教学以知识为立脚点提供了方便。
3.教学环境的特点
外语教学是在学校环境教学生学会外语,这不同于在目的语环境中的自然学习:环境对学习会有极大的制约作用。而综观我国的外语教学环境,仅在操作层面就有四大特点。
(1)班大人多,当前小学英语班级有多达80余人者;中学则可能每班超出100;最小的班也是50来人。一名教师同时教这么多学生,师生的接触面很窄;在短短的20—40分钟里,学生之间以目的语为媒介的接触量也极为有限。课堂以外,学生又难得有其他外语信息源,有了也不见得能够抓住(如电视)。唯有循知识→技能→综合运用的路子学习,才能保证学生学有所得。
(2)我国推广人多,发展极不平衡。在相当长的一段历史时期,我们的学生仍会缺乏目的语环境,学生在生活中自然学会的机会极少。这也限制我们采用经验主义的教学方法,而较多地采用理性主义的教学方法。后者必须以知识学习为引导。
(3)根据拨乱反正以后外语教学经验的统计分析2,我国学生学会外语在很大程度上得靠自学。自然外语须得有学习手段和正误的监查。拼读能力、语法能力、词汇知识正是学习的手段,也是监查输入与产出语言之正误的工具。为此,外语教学必须以语言知识为立脚点。
(4)我国学生最现实地运用外语的场合是考试。不论测试理论和试题结构如何变化,应考能力的基础仍是语言知识,只是或隐或显而已。
1.本文从四方面论证了语言知识是外语教学的立脚点。
(1)交际法之前人们反复地从经验主义←→理性主义提出不同的外语教学理想,都没忽视语言知识的教学。
(2)交际法以后人们正在探寻能够满足客观发展需要的外语教学理想,但不可能排斥语言知识的教学。
(3)语言习得论研究的习语者语言,习语者的外在因素,习语者的内在因素以及习语者的个体差异,都或显或隐地承认了语言知识教学的重要性。
(4)我国外语教学的客体、主体和环境具有必须以语言知识为立脚点的特点。
2.本文无意论述除了语言知识为立脚点以外的任何问题。至于以语言知识为立脚点的内涵则指两个:
(1)语言知识可以成为外语教学所要培植的运用语言能力之大树的根;
(2)语言知识可以成为外语教学这位三极跳远者的弹跳点。
所以,语言知识不是外语教学的目的。外语教学的目的是培养运用目的语的能力。立脚点作为根是为了长成大树,作为弹跳点是为了跳得更快更远。
3.语言知识作为立脚点的两个内涵意味着:为了实现“语言知识是外语教学立脚点”这个观点,可能产生由不同的理念、策略和方法构成的外语教学法体系或模式。这是一个值得大力研究的课题。
1参见《中小学外语教学》1992年8—9期所刊《外语教学经验的统计与分析》。
2参见西南师大出版社1997年出版的《英语教学的发展研究》和人民教育出版社2001年出版的《英语教学的现状与发展》。发生了“语言学转向”。
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肢体语言 (Body Language )又称身体语言,是指经由身体的各种动作,从而代替语言藉以达到表情达意的沟通目的。广义言之,肢体语言也包括前述之面部表情在内;狭义言之,肢体语言只包括身体与四肢所表达的意义。 谈到由肢体表达情绪时,我们自然会想到很多惯用动作的含义。下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的语言文化论文:The Use of Body Language in Middle Schools。仅供大家参考!
Author:Zhnag Lei Supervisor: Dong Chunzhi
Foreign Language Department
Hankou Branch of Huazhong University of Science and Technology
【Thesis】:With the continual reform of language teaching and learning methods, teachers are in great demand to organize the classes in English and create English-learning circumstances. However, with the limitation of students' vocabulary, teachers have to simplify their teaching language with the help of facial expressions and body movements. In this article, the possibility and the effect of using body language in listening, speaking, reading and writing will be further discussed.
【Key words】: English teaching in middle schools, body language
As everyone knows, the classroom teaching is one of the most important ways that the students learn English. As far as the English teaching in the middle schools is concerned, teachers have to arouse the students' interest so that they may learn better. There are many ways to arouse the students' interest and help them to learn better, body language used in English teaching is one of them.
Body language is an important media through which people communicate with each other. It refers to the patterns of facial expressions and gestures that people use to express their feelings in communication. The specialist on body language research, Fen. Lafle. Angles, once said: "Once it was lost, a baby couldn't have grown into a normal person". It's also true to the juveniles. In school education, body language plays a positive role in cultivating the students' characters. For, teachers are usually respected, and factually, what or how the teachers say and do will be possibly imitated by the students (sometimes subconsciously). In a word, teachers' graceful body language helps to improve the students' artistic-appreciation and moral character. If the students develop a wonderful body language, which will possibly leads them to form an optimistic and active feelings, they will surely have a more smooth interpersonal relation.
The affection of teachers' body language on the students is reflected not only by establishing a good example, but also shortening the teacher-student estrangement by which a more harmonious studying atmosphere is created. As a matter of fact, teachers' friendly appearance can greatly encourage the students' studying enthusiasm. Furthermore, the characteristics of theoretic and abstraction of knowledge also requires the vivid, dramatic and an accessible gestures to make it specific and figurative. As a result, the students' interest is motivated and the effect of teaching is greatly improved.
English teaching is a key part of the school education. With the English teaching methods reform, more and more English teachers organize the teaching process in English so that they may realize the Communicated English. The Communicated English means that teachers instruct the students and explain questions basically in English, and the students are also required to use English in class. Contemporarily, however, the students in the middle school can't speak very well; neither can they understand why they should use different tones in different time or situation; their vocabulary and expressive ability are limited too. These limitations made it difficult to realize the Communicated English in the classes. According to the students' present level and practical situation, body language is required. For example, when a teacher gives an instruction: "You two, please come to the blackboard." The students can easily understand it if the teacher looks at (or points to) some two students.
Then, the teacher points to the blackboard. The students will carry out the order without obstacle even if they don't hear the key words "blackboard" clearly. Furthermore, teachers usually have to explain some language points, and at this time, they have to differentiate the classroom expressions and the examples. Take it for example, we ought to use the form 'have done' such as 'Have you finished that job jet?'" To make the students understand clearly, a teacher has lots of ways. To do it by speed, he uses a common speed when reading "we ought to use the form 'have done'", and reads slowly when giving examples; he can also get the effect by repeating the example 'Have you finished that job jet'; a more frequent way is to use gestures to lay emphasis on the key points when he said "have done"(emphasizing it in voice at the same time), he reaches out his index finger, pauses in the air, and then gives out the example. This action will usually give the students a deep impression. From the above we can learn, the use of body language in English teaching is necessary and practical. In the English teaching in middle schools, body language is frequently used to improve the teaching effect and the students' ability.
1. Body language helps to improve listening
The Greek philosopher Epictetus ever wittily said: "Nature has given man one tongue and two ears that he may hear twice as much as he speaks." From the saying we can learn how important the listening is in our daily life. To understand others is a basic purpose in English teaching, and teachers often train the students' listening accordingly. In this process, if the body language is used, the effect will be better. When beginning a new lesson, the teacher narrates the story outline in English. The body language may help. For example, a teacher can stretch his arms slowly when he says "She is in a very big room"; he can open his eyes widely with mouth opened when he says "She is so beautiful a lady". As a result, the students will have such an impression: She is very beautiful indeed; a teacher who imitates the crying or the movement of the animals under the premise of teaching order will surely achieve a better effect.
2. Body language helps to improve speaking
The spoken language is one of the important ways to communicate, so we should try to develop the students' ability of speaking. Factually they are helped to reach the aim in a certain degree by their teacher's body language.
The contemporary emphasis is gradually laid on spoken English teaching. The first lesson of every unit in Senior English begins with dialogue. The teaching programs require the teachers to organize the class to practice English according to the characteristics of dialogue. Generally speaking, the body language can arouse and sustain the students' interest of learning and using English. In the English class, the teachers should not only use body languages themselves, but also ask the students to use them according to the different situation. Take it for example, the first lesson in Unit one, Book one is about the time when the new students first meet, and they don't know each other. So a teacher can introduce himself first, such as: "Hello, everyone, nice to meet you here. Now I'll introduce myself to you. My name is Arthur. I like playing basketball, for, it makes me much stronger; I like playing chess, for, it makes me more clever; and I like reading books, for, 'reading makes one perfect'". During the introduction, the teacher should use the new vocabularies and sentence structures together with a vivid expression and mating gestures as possibly as he can. He smiles when he says hello to the class; he shakes hands with some students saying "Nice to meet you"; he writes name down on the blackboard; he imitates the action of dribbling and shooting at the basketball, playing chess and turning pages to explain his hobby. After his introduction, the teacher can create a circumstance for the students to practice: "Mary and Jack are new classmates. They are walking together in the street, and they meet one of Jack's old friends, Yangpei. Then Yangpei and Mary are introduced to each other by Jack." After the students' practice the dialogue is introduced naturally from it. Usually, the application of body language in different situations will result in an attracting and successful lesson.
3. Body language helps to improve reading
The purpose of Senior English teaching is to train the students' preliminary ability of using spoken and written English. In the senior school, we lay emphasis one the reading ability that serves the students' further study. Here we mainly mention the helpfulness for reading aloud(朗读). Reading aloud helps the students to get a correct pronunciation and intonation and to develop the combination of vocabularies' pronunciation, spelling and meaning. Furthermore it also helps the students to find out the article's internal feelings and appreciate the beauty of the language. A linguist ever said: "A poem is not a poem until it is read." Reading aloud is basic in the middle school, and the teachers should make full use of body language to develop the students' ability of reading aloud.
When reading the sentences, attention should be paid to where to speak softly, emphasize, and raise or lower our tone. To make it clear, we can imitate the strong or soft pats that are used in music teaching, which means to use the arcs to represent different tones. Generally speaking, we use falling tones in declarative and special interrogative sentence, first rising tones and then falling tones in the choosing interrogative sentence. The students in the middle school are not often accustomed to and always confuse them, however, with the help of body language, they can solve the problem much more easily. For example, they use gestures. As they read the choosing interrogative sentence, they raise their hands in rising tones and lower in falling tones. After training for some times, as soon as they read the sentences, they will remind themselves of the gestures. As a result, there will be no problems in rightly reading the sentences at all.
In a word, the vivid gesture together with the fluent English can create a good circumstance of learning, which will surely play an active part in improving the students' reading ability.
4. Body language helps to improve writing.
Writing is one of the four basic skills of learning language, and it is so important a skill that we can even say without it, people can't communicate with others. Not only should the students get some English knowledge and vocabularies, but also the ability to communicate in spoken and written English as what is mentioned in the teaching programs. To some extent, writing is much more important than speaking, for it can spread without the limitation of space and time. Since the students learn English as a media for communication, they should have the ability of writing.
To get rid of the students' feelings of being dull and tiring, an English teacher has to use every possible method. This is the same to the writing. Teachers use different method in order to improve the students' ability of writing, among which, the application of body language can deepen the object impression, such is magnificent in developing the students' writing ability.
The linguist Franklin ever said, "Tell me, I'll forget; teach me, I'll remember; involve me and I'll learn." If we asked the students to write an unfamiliar composition, they would probably be unable to and feel discouraged. However, the students can write excellent articles if they have the experience. In and out of class, we should ask the students to participate some English-related activities, and then ask them to write it down. Take "The First Snow in Winter" for example, having enjoyed themselves in the beautiful snowing and been given some hints, the students can write much better a composition. For contrast to their complete imagination, the students are deeply impressed by the body movement of the teachers and themselves, which surely leads to a better article.
Learning English needs practice. The 45 minutes in class is very precious and should be cherished, during which the students should practice as much as possible. To exert the limited time, teachers are required to adopt some effective methods. The use of body language can not only attract the students' attention, but also deepen their impression and imagination. The use of body language is completely up to the standard of audio-visual teaching principle, so teachers should try to teach in English from the beginning to the end, together with the corresponding body language. In the end, the students' ability of English will be certainly and greatly improved.
1. He Guangkeng, The Basis of English Teaching and Learning Methods, Ji Nan University Press, 1999
2. Shen Minxian, The Use of the Body Language in Elementary School, Shanghai Education Vol. 12, 1999
3. Gu Xueliang, The Basic Technical Training in English Teaching, Hangzhou University Press, 1998.
4. Hu Chundiao, The English Teaching and Learning Methods, Higher Education Press, 1990
5. Liu Yongfa, Liu Xuan'en, The Practical Body Language, Hua Wen Press, 1997
6. Wu Zongjie, Readings for Applied Linguistics and Language Teaching, Zhejiang Teachers' University, 1998
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it 原意在英语中指代物的第三人称单数。另有其他单词的缩写,例如信息技术:Information Technology;即时翻译 instant translation;创新技术innovative technology等。也指信息技术行业的英文简称。
下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的语言文化论文:and的理解与表达。仅供大家参考!
and的理解与表达全文如下:
and是英语中使用频率极高的连词,用来连接词、短语和句子。 笔者根据九年制义务教育初中英语新教材 ,试就and的用法进行归纳, 以利于读者理解与掌握。
一、表示并列或对称的关系and可以用来连接语法作用相同的词、短语或句子,可译为“和”、“并”、 “又”、“兼”等。如:
Lucy and I go to school five days a week. 我和露西每周上五天学。(连接两个并列主语) You must look after yourself and keep healthy.你必须照顾自己并保持身体健康。(连接两个并列谓语)
They teach us Chinese and we teach them English.他们教我们汉语,我们教他们英语。(连接两个简 单句)
如果连接两个以上的词语,通常把and放在最后一个词语前面;为了强调,可在两者之间分别加上and;把词语连接起来时, 通常把较短的词语放在前面。如:
I like eggs,meat,rice,bread and milk.我喜欢鸡蛋、肉、米饭、面包和牛奶。
All that afternoon I jumped and sang and did all kinds ofthings.那天整个下午我又唱又跳,做各种各样的事情。
The apples are big and delicious.苹果又大又好吃。
有些用and连接的词语,次序是固定的,不能随意改变。如:
men,women and children男人、妇女和儿童;fish and chips 炸鱼加炸土豆片等。
二、表示目的 在口语中,and常用在go,come,try等动词后连接另一个动词,表示目的。此时and相当于 to,不必译出。如:
Go and see!去看看!
Come and meet the famly.来见见这家人。
三、表示条件和结果 在祈使句后,常用and连接一个简单句,表示条件与结果的关系, 它们在语法上是并列关系,但在意义上却是主从关系,也可译为“如果……就……”。如:
Work hard and you will live happily.=If you work hard,you will live happily.如果你努力工作,你就会活得愉快。
Come early and you will see him.=If you come early, youwill see him.如果你早来的话,你就会见到他。
四、表示承接关系 and用在句首,起承上启下的作用, 可译为“因此”、“那么”、“于是”等,也可不译。如:
And what's this?那么这是什么呢?
And the air today is nice and clean.今天的空气真清新。
五、表示动词的先后关系and常用来连接两个动词或动词词组,后一个动词所表示的 动作发生得迟一点 。此时and相当于then, 可译为“然后”。如:
Then he got out of the lift and climbed up to thefifteenth floor on foot.于是他从电梯里走 出来,然后步行爬上第15层楼。
Go along the street,and take the third turning on theright.沿这条街走,然后在第三个路口向右拐。
六、表示动作上的伴随关系 and连接两个动词, 动作同时发生,前一个动词表示姿势 或状态,后一个动 词表示伴随动作, and 相当于while,可译为“边……边……”。如: They talked and laughed happily.他们愉快地边谈边笑。
The baby watched and listened.这个婴儿边看边听。
七、表示因果关系 and连接两个动词或两个分句,带有因果关系,此时and相当于so, 可译为“便”、“ 于是”、“因而”、 “结果”等。如:
She couldn't find her mother and began to cry.她找不到妈妈,于是哭了起来。
It's a fine day today,and everyone is busy. 今天是个好天气,因而人人都很忙。
八、表示意义上的增补 and连接两个分句,第二个分句是第一个分句的补充或进一步说明,可译为“又 ”、“同时”等。如:
If you want to be thinner and healthier,you have to eatless food—and you also have to ta ke more exercise. 如果你想既苗条又健康,你就得少吃食物——同时,你还得多进行运动。
Don't be late—Oh,and put on your old clothes.别迟到——噢,还要穿上你的旧衣服。
九、表示递进与转折and表示转折时,相当于but,但语气较弱,可译为“而且”、“可 是”、“不过” 或不译。如:
I mean you eat too much,and you don't take enough exercise.我的意思是你吃的太多,而且运动得不 够。
They call me Lily sometimes,and I don't always tell themthat they've made a mistake.他们有时叫我莉莉,但我并不总是告诉他们说他们弄错了。
十、表示强调,加强语气 用and 连接两个相同的动词表示动作的反复;用and连接两个相同的副词,表示动作的延续;用and连接同一个形容词或副词的比较级表示程度的逐 步加深。如:
The baby laughed and laughed.这个婴儿笑呀,笑个不停。
They talked on and on very happily.他们很高兴地谈了又谈。
She looked at me and cried harder and harder.她看着我,哭得越来越厉害。
十一、and有时连接两个反义词 and连接的两个反义词在句中作状语或后置定语,这两个词的次序不得颠 倒。如:
He uses a lift to go up and down.他乘电梯上楼下楼。
When C
hrist was born nearly two thousand years ago. manypeople,rich and poor,gave him pres ents.差不多两千年前,耶稣出生时,许多人,无论贫富,都给他礼物。
十二、and连接两个数词或连接百位和十位之间的数词,前者可译为“加”,后者则不译。如:
What's one and two?一加二是多少?
There are three hundred and sixty-five days in a year.一年有365天。
Both John and Ann have got penfriends.约翰和安都有笔友。
The museum is between the post office and the hospital. 博物馆位于邮局和医院之间。
I love autumn because it's nice and cool.我喜爱秋天,因为它很凉爽。
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新自由主义 (Neoliberalism) 是英国现代政治思想的主要派别。主张在新的历史时期维护个人自由,调解社会矛盾,维护自由竞争的资本主义制度。 因而成为一种经济自由主义的复苏形式,自从1970年代以来在国际的经济政策上扮演着越来越重要的角色。下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的语言文化论文:The essence of neoliberalism。仅供大家参考!
As the dominant discourse would have it, the economic world is a pure and perfect order, implacably unrolling the logic of its predictable consequences, and prompt to repress all violations by the sanctions that it inflicts, either automatically or - more unusually - through the intermediary of its armed extensions, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and the policies they impose: reducing labour costs, reducing public expenditures and making work more flexible. Is the dominant discourse right? What if, in reality, this economic order were no more than the implementation of a utopia - the utopia of neoliberalism - thus converted into a political problem? One that, with the aid of the economic theory that it proclaims, succeeds in conceiving of itself as the scientific description of reality?
This tutelary theory is a pure mathematical fiction. From the start it has been founded on a formidable abstraction. For, in the name of a narrow and strict conception of rationality as individual rationality, it brackets the economic and social conditions of rational orientations and the economic and social structures that are the condition of their application.
To give the measure of this omission, it is enough to think just of the educational system. Education is never taken account of as such at a time when it plays a determining role in the production of goods and services as in the production of the producers themselves. From this sort of original sin, inscribed in the Walrasian myth (1) of "pure theory", flow all of the deficiencies and faults of the discipline of economics and the fatal obstinacy with which it attaches itself to the arbitrary opposition which it induces, through its mere existence, between a properly economic logic, based on competition and efficiency, and social logic, which is subject to the rule of fairness.
That said, this "theory" that is desocialised and dehistoricised at its roots has, today more than ever, the means of making itself true and empirically verifiable. In effect, neoliberal discourse is not just one discourse among many. Rather, it is a "strong discourse" - the way psychiatric discourse is in an asylum, in Erving Goffman's analysis (2). It is so strong and so hard to combat only because it has on its side all of the forces of a world of relations of forces, a world that it contributes to making what it is. It does this most notably by orienting the economic choices of those who dominate economic relationships. It thus adds its own symbolic force to these relations of forces. In the name of this scientific programme, converted into a plan of political action, an immense political project is underway, although its status as such is denied because it appears to be purely negative. This project aims to create the conditions under which the "theory" can be realised and can function: a programme of the methodical destruction of collectives.
The movement toward the neoliberal utopia of a pure and perfect market is made possible by the politics of financial deregulation. And it is achieved through the transformative and, it must be said, destructive action of all of the political measures (of which the most recent is the Multilateral Agreement on Investment (MAI), designed to protect foreign corporations and their investments from national states) that aim to call into question any and all collective structures that could serve as an obstacle to the logic of the pure market: the nation, whose space to manoeuvre continually decreases; work groups, for example through the individualisation of salaries and of careers as a function of individual competences, with the consequent atomisation of workers; collectives for the defence of the rights of workers, unions, associations, cooperatives; even the family, which loses part of its control over consumption through the constitution of markets by age groups.
The neoliberal programme draws its social power from the political and economic power of those whose interests it expresses: stockholders, financial operators, industrialists, conservative or social-democratic politicians who have been converted to the reassuring layoffs of laisser-faire, high-level financial officials eager to impose policies advocating their own extinction because, unlike the managers of firms, they run no risk of having eventually to pay the consequences. Neoliberalism tends on the whole to favour severing the economy from social realities and thereby constructing, in reality, an economic system conforming to its description in pure theory, that is a sort of logical machine that presents itself as a chain of constraints regulating economic agents.
The globalisation of financial markets, when joined with the progress of information technology, ensures an unprecedented mobility of capital. It gives investors concerned with the short-term profitability of their investments the possibility of permanently comparing the profitability of the largest corporations and, in consequence, penalising these firms' relative setbacks. Subjected to this permanent threat, the corporations themselves have to adjust more and more rapidly to the exigencies of the markets, under penalty of "losing the market's confidence", as they say, as well as the support of their stockholders. The latter, anxious to obtain short-term profits, are more and more able to impose their will on managers, using financial directorates to establish the rules under which managers operate and to shape their policies regarding hiring, employment, and wages.
Thus the absolute reign of flexibility is established, with employees being hiring on fixed-term contracts or on a temporary basis and repeated corporate restructurings and, within the firm itself, competition among autonomous divisions as well as among teams forced to perform multiple functions. Finally, this competition is extended to individuals themselves, through the individualisation of the wage relationship: establishment of individual performance objectives, individual performance evaluations, permanent evaluation, individual salary increases or granting of bonuses as a function of competence and of individual merit; individualised career paths; strategies of "delegating responsibility" tending to ensure the self-exploitation of staff who, simple wage labourers in relations of strong hierarchical dependence, are at the same time held responsible for their sales, their products, their branch, their store, etc. as though they were independent contractors. This pressure toward "self-control" extends workers' "involvement" according to the techniques of "participative management" considerably beyond management level. All of these are techniques of rational domination that impose over-involvement in work (and not only among management) and work under emergency or high-stress conditions. And they converge to weaken or abolish collective standards or solidarities (3).
In this way, a Darwinian world emerges - it is the struggle of all against all at all levels of the hierarchy, which finds support through everyone clinging to their job and organisation under conditions of insecurity, suffering, and stress. Without a doubt, the practical establishment of this world of struggle would not succeed so completely without the complicity of all of the precarious arrangements that produce insecurity and of the existence of a reserve army of employees rendered docile by these social processes that make their situations precarious, as well as by the permanent threat of unemployment. This reserve army exists at all levels of the hierarchy, even at the higher levels, especially among managers. The ultimate foundation of this entire economic order placed under the sign of freedom is in effect the structural violence of unemployment, of the insecurity of job tenure and the menace of layoff that it implies. The condition of the "harmonious" functioning of the individualist micro-economic model is a mass phenomenon, the existence of a reserve army of the unemployed.
This structural violence also weighs on what is called the labour contract (wisely rationalised and rendered unreal by the "theory of contracts"). Organisational discourse has never talked as much of trust, co-operation, loyalty, and organisational culture as in an era when adherence to the organisation is obtained at each moment by eliminating all temporal guarantees of employment (three-quarters of hires are for fixed duration, the proportion of temporary employees keeps rising, employment "at will" and the right to fire an individual tend to be freed from any restriction).
Thus we see how the neoliberal utopia tends to embody itself in the reality of a kind of infernal machine, whose necessity imposes itself even upon the rulers. Like the Marxism of an earlier time, with which, in this regard, it has much in common, this utopia evokes powerful belief - the free trade faith - not only among those who live off it, such as financiers, the owners and managers of large corporations, etc., but also among those, such as high-level government officials and politicians, who derive their justification for existing from it. For they sanctify the power of markets in the name of economic efficiency, which requires the elimination of administrative or political barriers capable of inconveniencing the owners of capital in their individual quest for the maximisation of individual profit, which has been turned into a model of rationality. They want independent central banks. And they preach the subordination of nation-states to the requirements of economic freedom for the masters of the economy, with the suppression of any regulation of any market, beginning with the labour market, the prohibition of deficits and inflation, the general privatisation of public services, and the reduction of public and social expenses.
Economists may not necessarily share the economic and social interests of the true believers and may have a variety of individual psychic states regarding the economic and social effects of the utopia which they cloak with mathematical reason. Nevertheless, they have enough specific interests in the field of economic science to contribute decisively to the production and reproduction of belief in the neoliberal utopia. Separated from the realities of the economic and social world by their existence and above all by their intellectual formation, which is most frequently purely abstract, bookish, and theoretical, they are particularly inclined to confuse the things of logic with the logic of things.
These economists trust models that they almost never have occasion to submit to the test of experimental verification and are led to look down upon the results of the other historical sciences, in which they do not recognise the purity and crystalline transparency of their mathematical games, whose true necessity and profound complexity they are often incapable of understanding. They participate and collaborate in a formidable economic and social change. Even if some of its consequences horrify them (they can join the socialist party and give learned counsel to its representatives in the power structure), it cannot displease them because, at the risk of a few failures, imputable to what they sometimes call "speculative bubbles", it tends to give reality to the ultra-logical utopia (ultra-logical like certain forms of insanity) to which they consecrate their lives.
And yet the world is there, with the immediately visible effects of the implementation of the great neoliberal utopia: not only the poverty of an increasingly large segment of the most economically advanced societies, the extraordinary growth in income differences, the progressive disappearance of autonomous universes of cultural production, such as film, publishing, etc., through the intrusive imposition of commercial values, but also and above all two major trends. First is the destruction of all the collective institutions capable of counteracting the effects of the infernal machine, primarily those of the state, repository of all of the universal values associated with the idea of the public realm. Second is the imposition everywhere, in the upper spheres of the economy and the state as at the heart of corporations, of that sort of moral Darwinism that, with the cult of the winner, schooled in higher mathematics and bungee jumping, institutes the struggle of all against all and cynicism as the norm of all action and behaviour.
Can it be expected that the extraordinary mass of suffering produced by this sort of political-economic regime will one day serve as the starting point of a movement capable of stopping the race to the abyss? Indeed, we are faced here with an extraordinary paradox. The obstacles encountered on the way to realising the new order of the lone, but free individual are held today to be imputable to rigidities and vestiges. All direct and conscious intervention of whatever kind, at least when it comes from the state, is discredited in advance and thus condemned to efface itself for the benefit of a pure and anonymous mechanism, the market, whose nature as a site where interests are exercised is forgotten. But in reality, what keeps the social order from dissolving into chaos, despite the growing volume of the endangered population, is the continuity or survival of those very institutions and representatives of the old order that is in the process of being dismantled, and all the work of all of the categories of social workers, as well as all the forms of social solidarity, familial or otherwise.
The transition to "liberalism" takes place in an imperceptible manner, like continental drift, thus hiding its effects from view. Its most terrible consequences are those of the long term. These effects themselves are concealed, paradoxically, by the resistance to which this transition is currently giving rise among those who defend the old order by drawing on the resources it contained, on old solidarities, on reserves of social capital that protect an entire portion of the present social order from falling into anomie. This social capital is fated to wither away - although not in the short run - if it is not renewed and reproduced.
But these same forces of "conservation", which it is too easy to treat as conservative, are also, from another point of view, forces of resistance to the establishment of the new order and can become subversive forces. If there is still cause for some hope, it is that forces still exist, both in state institutions and in the orientations of social actors (notably individuals and groups most attached to these institutions, those with a tradition of civil and public service) that, under the appearance of simply defending an order that has disappeared and its corresponding "privileges" (which is what they will immediately be accused of), will be able to resist the challenge only by working to invent and construct a new social order. One that will not have as its only law the pursuit of egoistic interests and the individual passion for profit and that will make room for collectives oriented toward the rational pursuit of ends collectively arrived at and collectively ratified.
How could we not make a special place among these collectives, associations, unions, and parties for the state: the nation-state, or better yet the supranational state - a European state on the way toward a world state - capable of effectively controlling and taxing the profits earned in the financial markets and, above of all, of counteracting the destructive impact that the latter have on the labour market. This could be done with the aid of labour unions by organising the elaboration and defence of the public interest. Like it or not, the public interest will never emerge, even at the cost of a few mathematical errors, from the vision of accountants (in an earlier period one would have said of "shopkeepers") that the new belief system presents as the supreme form of human accomplishment.
(1) Auguste Walras (1800-66), French economist, author of De la nature de la richesse et de l'origine de la valeur ("On the Nature of Wealth and on the Origin of Value") (1848). He was one of the first to attempt to apply mathematics to economic inquiry.
(2) Erving Goffman. 1961. Asylums: Essays on the Social Situation of Mental Patients and Other Inmates. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
(3) See the two journal issues devoted to "Nouvelles formes de domination dans le travail" ("New forms of domination in work"), Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales, nos. 114, September 1996, and 115, December 1996, especially the introduction by Gabrielle Balazs and Michel Pialoux, "Crise du travail et crise du politique" [Work crisis and political crisis], no. 114: p.3-4.
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文学史是人类文化成果之一的文学的历史。它是研究文学的历史现象及其发展规律的科学。根据不同国别、地域、民族及不同时期、不同体裁等分类标准,可分为国别史(如中国文学史)、世界或地区史(如世界文学史、欧洲文学史)、通史或断代史(中国现代文学史)、民族史(如蒙古族文学史)、分体史(如中国戏曲史)等。下面是读文网小编为大家精心准备的语言文化论文:美国文学史。仅供大家参考!
美国文学史全文如下:
America’s history of literature began with the swarming in of immigrants with different background and cultures. After that, American literature had been greatly influenced by the European culture for a long period. It was not until America’s independence, did Americans realized that they need national literature strongly, and American literature began to developed. The Civil War was a watershed in the history, after which American literature entered a period of full blooming. Romantics, which emphasized individualism and intuition and Tnscendentalism represented by Emerson came out into being. This was an exciting period in the history of American literature. Like the flowers of spring, there were suddenly many different kinds of writing at the same time. They have given depth and strength to American literature, and accelerated the forming of High Romantics. But due to the influence of Civil War, the American society was in a turbulent situation. The writings about local life, critical realism and unveiling the dark side of the society were increased. After The First World War, Americans were at a loss postwar, and the Modern American literature began.
My piece of paper is written in chronological order as these periods developed in order to have a clear outline of its progress.
Keywords:National Literature, Romanism, Transcendentalism, Local Color, Realism, Modern literature
摘要:从殖民地时期起,欧洲殖民者和清教徒翻开了美国文学史的第一页。 这往后很长一段时期, 美国文学一直都受到欧洲文化的很大影响。一直到美国独立后,美国人强烈地感觉到了民族文学的需要,美国的民族文学开始发展。 南北战争是美国文学史上一个分水岭, 战后美国文学进入了一个全盛时期,产生了强调个性主义和直觉的早期浪漫主义,和以爱默生为代表的超验主义文学。爱默生的时代是美国前所未有的文学变动时代,产生了一大批优秀的作家和作品。 他们突出地给予了当时美国文学以深度和力量,也促进了罗曼主义高潮的来临。但是由于战争的影响, 社会动荡不安,这时的作品更注重于揭示社会的阴暗面, 同时美国的民族文学进一步发展,创作出许多带有本土色彩和批判现实主义的作品。 一战后,美国人陷入战后的茫然, 美国也开始进入了现代文学阶段。
我的论文随着这些时代的发展以时间顺序展开, 以便对于美国文学史的产生和发展纲要能有一个清晰的条理。
关键词: 民族文学, 浪漫主义, 超验主义, 本土色彩, 现实主义, 现代文学
American is a multi-national country. Just like a big container, which put in various kinds of elements. Different cultures, that can not only be co-existed but also form a sharp contrast, mixed together, It makes American literature style has a flavor of distinct and various aesthetic feeling. Many writers come from lower level, which makes American literature has the rich flavor of life and local color. Furthermore, many new styles of literature in the world are oriented in America since 20th century.
The process of American literature can be divided into following main periods: Colony and Puritan literature; early national literature; latter national literature and Modern literature.
America’s history of literature began with the swarming in of immigrants with different background and cultures. After that, American literature had been greatly influenced by the European culture for a long period. It was not until America’s independence, did Americans realize that they need national literature strongly, and American literature began to develop. The Civil War was a watershed in the history, after which American literature entered a period of full blooming. Romantics, which emphasized individualism and intuition,and Tnscendentalism represented by Emerson came out into being. This was an exciting period in the history of American literature. Like the flowers of spring, there were suddenly many different kinds of writing at the same time. They have given depth and strength to American literature, and accelerated the forming of High Romantics. But due to the influence if Civil War, the American society was in a turbulent situation. The writings about local life, critical realism and unveiling the dark side of the society were increased. After The First World War, Americans were at a loss postwar, and the Modern American literature began.
(1). Travelers and Explorers
When the European explorers first came to this new continent, the native Indians who probably got here from Asia about fifteen thousand years ago were still in origin, and they even had no written language, “The traditional literature was originally transmitted almost entirely by word of mouth, and therefore belongs to the category of oral literature,” (Wu Dingbo, 1) As time past, more and more travelers and explorers swarmed in. They wrote a lot of diaries、letters, and travel accounts to describe the new land as second Eden. No wander somebody said that the earliest American literature were the travel accounts written by European adventurers. Among the most remained were Captain John Smith’s True Relation of Virginia (1608), and Description of New England (1616).
Although most of the Indian history was preserved in tales and songs, they had thoughts about life and nature. They loved the natural world around them deeply, and they believed that when a person was dead, he would give back what had borrowed while he was alive to nature. This kind of philosophy had influenced later or even modern American writers. It’s interesting that when we look at the literature of the Puritans, the Transcendentalists, the Naturalists, and even the Moderns, when we read Anne Bradstreet, Emily Dickinson, Stephen Crane, and Ernest Hemingway, we can find similar themes.
(2) Pilgrim settlements
Several years later, another group of settlers also arrived in the New World. This group was looking for the Jamestown settlement. However, because of bad navigation, they landed in Massachusetts. They were also coming to the New World with dreams of success, but their goal was different from the Jamestown settlement. They wanted to start a new world governed by the Bible. They were called Puritans because they wanted to live a better life by making themselves pure. They first arrived on the Mayflower and settled in Plymouth. This is the group we are usually thinking about when we talk about the "first Americans."
The clearest history of their journey to the New World can be found in History of Plymouth Plantation (1608) written by William Bradford, who was also one of the Mayflower passengers. The History of Plymouth Plantation is a Puritan book in the best sense. “It’s loosely annalistic, but a direct and simple style gives charm, as a sincere faith in Puritanism gives purity, to the entire book.” (W. P. Trent, 1997)
The Puritans had several kinds of literature. By far the most common form is the writing related to Biblical teachings, or sermons, that the church leaders wrote. The Puritans believed that they were in the New World because God had brought them there for a special purpose. They thought that by studying the Bible they could learn more about this way of life. So they were very strict to their life, and they didn’t allow any kind of entertainment even in literature. That’s way Wu Dingbo said in his book “Literature of the New England Settlement is mainly a literary expression of the Puritan idealism” and “The literature of the colonial settlement served either God or colonial expansion or both.” (Wu Dingbo, 4)
Another important form of writing from this period is the histories. These books, like Bradford's History of Plymouth Plantation, are important because they tell us about life at the time of the Puritans.
People also wrote many poems. But a lot of works were hidden and lost because people often considered poetry to be an inferior form of writing and not totally acceptable to Puritan thinking.
One of the most significant poets from this period was Anne Bradstreet (1612-1672). Her poems in Tenth Muse Lately Sprung Up In America (1650) reflected the con concerns of women who came to settle in the colonies, and in all her poems, however, she shows her strong belief in God.
(1) The Age of reason
In the 18th century, people believed in man’s own nature and the power of human reason. With Franklin as its spokesman, the 18th century America experienced an age of reason.
Words had never been so useful and so important in human history. People wrote a lot of political writings. Numerous pamphlets and printings were published. These works agitated revolutionary people not only in America but also around the world.
Among the most renowned was the work Common Sense (1776) of Thomas Paine (1737-1809). It’s the ringing call for the decoration of liberty. He also wrote Crisis (1774-1783) and The Age of Reason (1794-1796), according to Wu, “He thought that religion should be based on rational, reasonable ground. ” (Wu Dingbo, 12) The pamphlets helped complete the debate that resulted in America's separation from England.
And of course for all the Americans, the most important document from this period was a single sheet of paper called The Declaration of Independence (1776), mainly written by Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin.
Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790), the most distinguished person and giant in American history, he wrote and worked for American independence hardly and had made so many great efforts to America that he has been called "The First American." a world-renowned scientist, diplomat, philosopher, and writer. He perfected the smooth, clear, short sentences of the Puritan plain style. His Autobiography encourages hard work and emphasizes the importance of achievement. Another work that is well known is Poor Richard's Almanack, and many of the sentences have become popular quotations.
During this time writers thought that the truth should be relied on Bible, churchmen, authorities, or practice and experience.
(2) Early National Literature
During the period of American Revolution War, American national literature came into being. Since before the war, American people have already had the awareness of national independence, so they wrote many political writings revolutionary poems.
The war helped the first important American prose writers and poets grow up both culturally and artistically. Furthermore, the independence of nation led to the independence of national literature. From this moment on, American people began to understand of meaning of being a real ”American“.
From the 1820’s to the Civil War broke out, American literature entered a period of full blooming. Writings all characterized by a distinct national style and flavor. At the same time, the world as a whole was experiencing a change in ways of thinking: there was a move from classical ideas to romantic ones. This change was taking place in all areas of culture around the world. This was an exciting period in the history of American literature. Like the flowers of spring, there were suddenly many different kinds of writing at the same time. All the works have an optimistic spirit. They represented the various and quick development of American national literature.
(1) Early Romantics
In early 19th century, Washington Irving (1783-1859), the person born with the new nation, his The Sketch Book created a new style of American literature—short novel. James Fenimore Cooper (1789-1851) His "Leather-Stocking" novels told us a story about how the brave immigrants fight with savage using what they have learnt from nature.
Another famous writer of this time was William Cullen Bryant (1794-1878), he was regarded one of the earliest naturalist poets in American history. His greatest poem Thanatopsis was published in the North American Review in 1817. He appreciates normal birds and flowers, through which appreciated harmonious relationship between human and nature. The Romantics emphasized individualism and they thought feelings and emotions were more important than reason and common sense.
(2) The Transcendentalism
“The New England Transcendentalism was romantic idealism on puritan soil” (Wu Dingbo: 28). It stressed the power of intuition placed spirit first, and it took nature as symbolic of spirit or God. There were three main features of Transcendentalism were Unitarianism, idealistic philosophy, and oriental mysticism.
Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882), the leader of American Transcendentalism. “He captained a group of enthusiast and formed a transcendental club with them. He also helped to set up and edited the transcendentalist journal The Dial. ” He had written many famous essays. Among the best are Nature and The American Scholar, which has been called “America’s Declaration of Intellectual Independence”. Emerson wrote in The American Scholar (1837), a man must "learn to detect and watch that gleam of light which flashes across his mind from within." The main key to this inner world is the imagination. Man's imagination leads to expression. Our expression makes each of us a unique human. Romanticism became the way of thinking for this generation of writers.
Henry David Thoreau was also one of the writers of Transcendentalism, and his famous essay was Walden, in which he revealed the hidden spiritual possibilities in everyone’s life, and to considerate the pursuit of material things.
(3) High Romantics
Due to the great effort made by those geniuses such as Emerson and Thoreau, a wild-ranged national American literature had been laid a solid foundation by the mid-19th century.
There are four important names in American literature to remember from this period: Washington Irving (1783-1859), Walt Whitman (1819-1892), James Fennimore Cooper (1789-1851), and Edgar Allan Poe (1809-49).
Irving will long be remembered for his book of essays and stories, The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon (1819), which helping this new nation started its first step confidently. Cooper and Whitman described the character of the nation, which combined the courage and cleverness of expansion, the great sense of destination, and the optimistic spirit together. Hawthorne and Melville expressed the dark side of American dream though their profound and symbolized works.
Walt Whitman (1819-1892), father of free verse, “he threw aside the traditional ornaments and prettiness of verse, and created his own form” (Wu Dingbo, 44). His Leaves of Grass (1855), which contains such well-known poems as I Hear America Singing, and Song of Myself, was regarded America’s first genuine epic poem. He rejected regular meter and rhyme in favor of flowing free verse and celebrated patriotic love, ragged individualism, democracy and equality and stressed an almost mystical identification with America.
Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804-1864), due to his family background, his works always concerned with sin, morality, romance, and had complex Puritanism. His masterpiece was the novel The Scarlet Letter, and his The House of Seven Gables was also well liked. In these works he presented material on the alienation between facts and fancy, by using many symbols and setting to reveal the psychology of the character.
Herman Melville was Hawthorne’s good friend, also an important novelist. Melville's greatest work, Moby Dick (1851) was based on Melville's adventures on the whaling ships. It is the deep "tragedies of human thought" that show his critical understanding of human nature. Today Melville is considered one of America's greatest writers today.
Romanism was extremely influenced in a rising America as America had always had a strong spiritual tradition and romanticism was very comfortable with American spiritual heritage and its ideals of democracy and equality. During this period, the American literature was so changeable that has never been before. Nathaniel Hawthorne, Herman Melville, Walt Whitman and Edgar Allan Poe, these four great writers had given depth and strength to American literature at that time.
After the Civil War, the American society was in a turbulent situation through several economical crises. The writings about critical realism and unveiling the dark side of the society were increased. They were mainly focus on bankrupt in countries, difficult life or struggle of low-position people and so on. Thus Romanism was on the wane with passing days, while Realism rose and became more and more popular.
(1) Local Color Fiction and Mark Twain
Local Color Fiction first appeared in the early 19th century, and it had further developing after the Civil War. This kind of literature mainly describes the local life. Its keynote was optimistic, and the language was narrative and humorous. For example, the work of Bret Harte (1836-1902) told us the life of American western miners. Mark Twain was the main writer of this period. He wrote for nearly 50 years, and he had actually written many different types of stories. Nevertheless, Twain is remembered most for The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876), Life on the Mississippi (1884) and The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884). The characters he created were humorous and full of wittiness. Mark Twain’s work was regarded the witness of America’s pure local life. According to Calkins, “Few American writers have written the same after reading Twain, for he has helped change the entire country with his humor and skillful story telling.” (Carroll C.Calkins, 124).
(2) Rise of Realism
“Realism is the theory of writing in which familiar aspects of contemporary life and everyday scenes represented in a straightforward or matter of fact manner“ (Wu Dingo, 59). Romantic writers focused on the development of plot, make the story as interesting and attractive as possible, while realism writers emphasized the characterization of characters, focused on objectivity rather than an idealistic view of human nature and human experience.
William Dean Howells (1837-1920) insisted that Realism was the truthful treatment of material moral problems of society. And in O.Henry (1862-1910)’s fictions, all his characters were common people and always had an ironical and surprised ending.
There was another style of writing developed by Henry James (1843-1916), who was a writer focused on the description of psychology and behavior. He wrote some complex and profound novels such as The Wings of the Dove, The Ambassador, The Golden Bowl, and created psychological realism.
After the mid-19th century, the keynote of romantic literature changed form optimistic to doubtful. The sharp conflict of society force more writers’ attention to the unveiling of dark social fact and self-questioning.
Thought the writers of this time unveiled the misfortune and sadness or even degenerate things in actual life, they didn’t just took of the dark side of life as their material, most of them were the reformists with the hope of helping to create a better nation. Stephen Crane (1871-1900) showed more and more serious problems in big sites in his Maggie, A Girl of the Streets, and his most famous book about the American Civil War called The Red Badge of Courage. He thought his works liked a mirror reflecting all life, he emphasized the accidental physiological nature of the characters rather than their moral and rational qualities. Stephen Crane had formed a new style called Naturalism, which had influenced many following writers.
The First World War not only damaged the people’s life, but also led to a turbulent situation of the American society. People of this time were named “The Lost Generation ”, and the writers and works had a pessimistic and disconsolate feeling.
(1) Modern poetry
Ezra Pound, T.S.Eliot and E.E Cummings are three poets who opened the way to modern poetry.
Ezra Pound started the “Imagist” movement, and his The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock has been called the first masterpiece of modernism. The Waste Land of T.S.Eliot particularly comments on the inhumanity and decadence of large modern cities.
(2) Modern novels
Many persons regarded that Ernest Hemingway and other important writers of 20th century had adopted the concise style and naturalism of Stephen Crane. Nevertheless, they still created their own styles and had written so many immortal masterpieces. Among the greatest were Ernest Hemingway (l899-1961) and William Faulkner (l897-1962).
Ernest Hemingway was once take part in the First Would War, so many of his works deal with war or injury, and nearly all of them examined the nature of courag, e. By suffering from the violent of war, he felt that he was cut off from all his old beliefs and assumptions about life. “He thought the War had broken America’s culture and traditions, and separated it from its toots” (Elisabeth B. Booz: 1982). The works he wrote--The Sun Also Rises, A Farewell to Arms, For Whom the Bell Tolls and The Old Man and the Sea—inferred the state of mind, and they became the representatives of the feeling of this generation.
Epilogue
American literature has gone though the progress of development over 200 years. It is characterized by the distinct individualism, which is optimistic, free and always creative. The living American literature has been providing potent thinking headsprings for the writers past and nowadays, and it will continue reanimating the talents to bequeath and enrich the tradition of American literature, of which deserved to be proud.
1. Carroll C.Calkins, The story of America, New York: The Readers Digest Association, Inc, 1975
2. Elisabeth B. Booz, A Brief Introduction To Modern American Literature 1919-1980, Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1982
3. 柯恩, Landmarks of American Literature, 北京: 三联书店, 1988
4. Wu Dingbo, An outline of American literature, Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1998
5. Edited by W. P. Trent, J. Erskine & S. P. Sherman, The Cambridge History of English and American Literature, Cambridge, England: University Press, 1997
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古希腊神话是古希腊人民智慧的结晶,它的想象力丰富多彩,激发了人们探求古希腊文明的欲望和热情。马克思曾经指出:“希腊的神话和史诗是发展的最完美的人类童年的产物,具有永久的魅力”。希腊神话是西方文化宝库里的璀璨明珠,对西方国家社会生活和人们的思维方式等各个方面均产生了极其深远的影响。它不但是西方文化的源泉,而且深深地根植于西方各国的语言文化之中。因此,对希腊神话的深入研究是了解和研究英语语言文化的关键。
英语语言文化有两个主要源头——古希腊罗马神话和圣经。英语的词汇从神话故事中吸取精髓,将神话故事中的词汇、神名、传说故事演化,由此大大地丰富了英语语言。希腊神话以其丰富的想象力、丰富的故事情节流传于世。
希腊神话对英语词汇的影响主要体现在词汇和习语方面,主要形式有直接引用、转义借用、派生新词和词根化。这方面的例子有:Flora是古希腊神话中的花神。她嫁给了西风之神Zephyr,婚后她的丈夫送给她一座满是奇花异草的花园。Flora和Zephyr生活幸福,感情甜蜜,每当他们一起在花园散步时,沿途的百花都会竟相开放。Flora 在现代英语里指代“植物”,衍生词有flower,flour,flourish,floral,florist等;神话中人间的王子那喀索斯(narcissus)是个长相英俊的美少年,经常喜欢独自一人在森林中漫步,他脱俗的外表和气质吸引了森林女神艾蔻(echo)的注意,渐渐的她爱上了这个王子,每天都跟随在王子的身后,但是却无法表白,因为她遭到了天后赫拉的诅咒终生只能重复别人话语的后三个字。艾蔻本是天后赫拉的侍女,活泼爱动且多嘴多舌,在赫拉和天神宙斯的婚礼上,因为艾蔻的原因导致宙斯在结婚誓言中没有说愿意一生一世只爱赫拉一人而遭到了赫拉的恨意,婚后的宙斯没有收敛拈花惹草的天性令赫拉头痛不已。传说赫拉在天宫中正为此郁闷,拨开云雾看到了人间森林中艾蔻跟踪那喀索斯的一幕,遂心生一计,惩罚艾蔻永远得不到所爱人的心。后来那喀索斯忍不住问艾蔻“你是谁呀?”,艾蔻只能不断的重复“是谁呀,是谁呀……”而遭到那喀索斯的讨厌,最后艾蔻抑郁而终,死后变成了山谷中的“回声”,而那喀索斯也被赫拉施以诅咒,爱上了自己水中的倒影,而变成了一株“水仙花”,后来的他的名字还引申为“自恋,自我陶醉”的意思;著名运动品牌耐克的商标也来源于希腊神话故事,耐克(Nike)是神话中的胜利女神,这一品牌正是源于女神名字的引申含义。
源自于希腊神话中的习语更是不胜枚举,如Pandora’s box(潘多拉的宝盒),天神普罗米修斯心地善良同情人间疾苦,不顾众神的反对,偷偷教给人类许多生存技巧和知识,后来甚至把圣火火种带到了人间造福千千万万的平民百姓。这让一直持反对意见的主神宙斯知道了,宙斯勃然大怒而对普罗米修斯和人类都施加惩罚。宙斯先是把普罗米修斯捆绑到了高加索山峰上,日夜折磨他的身心,每天白天都让鹰啄食他的内脏,然后又施加法术,让其夜晚再长出来,日以继夜。宙斯为了报复人类,亲自创造了只有美丽的外表但是却没有头脑思想又充满了好奇心的美女潘多拉,然后他又制造了装满邪恶、苦难、疾病、战争等的盒子让潘多拉带到人间,但是希望女神在盒底偷偷放入了希望的种子。宙斯让普罗米修斯的弟弟爱上了潘多拉而结婚,但是却在新婚之夜诱惑潘多拉打开了盒子,潘多拉惊慌失措连忙把盒子合上,却把希望留在了盒中,后来这个习语意为“灾难的根源”;Achilles’ heel(阿喀琉斯之踵),阿喀琉斯是神话中海洋女神忒提斯和人类的孩子,是半人半神的英雄,故事源于荷马史诗《伊利亚特》。因为是人和神的孩子,所以他不能像神那样可以永生,所以她的母亲忒提斯在他刚出生即把他浸入冥河河水中让儿子成为刀枪不入之身,但是由于脚后跟被母亲双手捏着而没有浸到河水,成为了他唯一的弱点,此事在特洛伊之战中被对手知道而丧命,后来这个习语意为“致命的弱点”;Apple of discord(不和的根源),故事源于不和女神艾瑞斯的一只金苹果,看不惯人们友好幸福的不和女神制作了一只写有“送给最美的女神”的金苹果,引起了天后赫拉,智慧女神雅典娜和爱与美的女神阿芙洛狄忒的争夺。由于各执一词,她们找到了特洛伊王子帕里斯裁决,为了能获得这“最美女神”的虚荣,她们各自向王子承诺地位、财富、智慧与美女,后来阿芙洛狄忒许诺的美女让王子最为动心。这就是希腊斯巴达王后海伦的被抢夺说导致的特洛伊之战,也是由“一只苹果”而引发的战争,因此apple of discord意思就是“不和的根源,发生纠纷的事端”。而故事中的美女海伦因为是这场战争的导火索也衍生出了“Helen of Troy”这一习语,意为“祸端,红颜祸水,倾城美人”;随着东西方文化的交融,在我国每年过西方“情人节”的人不在少数,人们都对那个胖嘟嘟精灵可爱的身后背着箭篓的小爱神丘比特印象深刻,可是要是问道这个节日的背后的故事恐怕了解的人就会寥寥无几了。丘比特是希腊神话中的私生子,他的身世也暗示了但是社会现状丑陋的一面。他的母亲是希腊神话中的爱与美的女神阿芙洛狄忒,她在罗马神话中的名字更为著名:维纳斯,他的父亲是战神马尔斯。阿芙洛狄忒与马尔斯都是宙斯的孩子,是兄妹关系,这一乱伦爱情也体现了希腊神话母体之一:乱伦。宙斯风流成性竟然爱上了自己的女儿——爱与美的女神阿芙洛狄忒,但却遭到了女儿的强烈反抗,激怒了宙斯,宙斯遂把她嫁给了天神中相貌最丑陋的神匠赫菲斯托斯。由于对生活的不满,产生了兄妹之间的不伦之恋而生下了盲孩丘比特,因为先天的缺陷,天神怜悯赋予其掌管爱情和婚姻的能力,天神赐予他一只铅箭一只金箭,当他把铅箭射向人们的时候相爱的人就会分开,当他把金箭射向人们的时候人们则会相爱。丘比特爱玩闹是个永远长不大的孩子,经常胡乱射箭,因此产生了习语Love is blind意思就是“爱情是盲目的”。
希腊神话不仅是希腊文学的摇篮,而且对欧美文学有着深远的影响。现代社会被广为流传的希腊神话或传说大多来源于希腊文学作品。古希腊大诗人荷马的两部伟大的史诗巨著:一部是《伊利亚特》,一部是《奥德赛》包括了绝大部分的希腊神话。分别描述了古希腊人和特洛伊人交战攻打伊利亚特城的经过和希腊军队在返回的途中所遇到的许多不可思议的见闻;闻名遐尔的古希腊三大悲剧诗人埃斯库罗斯、索福克勒斯和欧里庇得斯流传下来的 34 部悲剧中有 33 部都以神话为题材。这其中著名的作品有《被缚的普罗米修斯》、《俄狄浦斯王》和《美狄亚》;后世的诗人文学家用神话故事作为创作素材的更是恒河沙数,从乔叟到莎士比亚、弥尔顿、济慈、丁尼生、雪莱、拜伦、朗费罗、艾略特、庞德等人,无一不从神话中获得灵感,撷取思想和题材,创作出了许多不朽的名篇。譬如莎士比亚的《特洛伊罗斯与克瑞西达》和长诗《维那斯与阿多尼斯》,弥尔顿的《失乐园》,雪莱的《解放了的普罗米修斯》,济慈的《阿波罗颂》、《希腊古瓮》,艾略特的《荒原》,庞德的《诗章》等等。《罗密欧与朱丽叶》、《老人与海》、《基督山伯爵》等现代作品以及极具有影响力的电影《泰坦尼克号》、《特洛伊》、《诸神之战》、《诸神之怒》、《爱丽丝梦游仙境》等也是以神话故事的母题为创作栏板。神话故事曲折丰富的故事在给读者美德享受的同时也激发了艺术家们丰富的想象力。《基督山伯爵》是发货著名作家大仲马的一部脍炙人口的作品,作者用艺术手法表现了希腊神话中报恩与复仇的主题。在故事中男主角埃德蒙·唐代斯是一名聪明善良的年轻大副,有理想有抱负,但同时也遭到了众多嫉妒他的爱情、事业的小人的算计,这些人有社会底层也有所谓的三层社会,他们互相勾结,暗算了少年得志的唐代斯使他无辜入狱,但在入狱后唐代斯机缘巧合结石了神父法里亚,法里亚博学多闻因为政治原因入狱,但是同时他又掌握着一个关于宝藏的惊天秘密。在神父的帮助下唐代斯分析出了自己被迫害的真相。神父在狱中把毕生所学都传授给了唐代斯,使他从外表到气质都发生了彻底的转变。后来在意外中,唐代斯得以离开暗无天日的牢狱并且得到了宝藏开始了他的报仇与报恩,在弘扬人性善良的同时揭露了所谓上层社会虚伪的嘴脸。最后他与爱人一起杨帆远航开拓新生活;《爱丽丝梦游仙境》是由英国作家查尔斯·路德维希·道奇森(Charles Lutwidge Dodgson)以笔名路易斯·卡罗(Lewis Carroll)出版的儿童文学作品。作品体现了希腊神话中的探险和冒险的主题。故事后来被改编成了广受欢迎的3D影片。在故事中主角爱丽丝偶然掉到了兔子洞中,开始一段奇妙的旅行,故事中的动物都能讲话都在做着不可思议的事情,爱丽丝同动物朋友们一起经历了奇妙的探险旅程,故事想象力丰富,成为了一代又一代孩子们在人生中最先接触的文学作品之一。后来故事还衍生出了医学词汇Alice Syndrome,意为爱丽丝综合症,其症状为病患通过自己的观察感觉事物忽大忽小,甚至产生时空扭曲等特殊视觉效果,多发于儿童时期。要充分了解英美文学,熟读希腊罗马神话是很有必要的。希腊神话以丰富的哲理和想象力在文学史上划下了绚烂的符号。
作为一名英语教师,本人在多年的教学中发现,在词汇的学习中,学生往往感觉枯燥乏味,而且易于遗忘,最后会对词汇的记忆产生烦躁情绪和抵触心理。如若在讲授过程中添加语言文化知识,不仅提升学习趣味性而且也加深了词汇学习的记忆,让学习者在知其所以然的情况下接受语言知识,促进跨文化交际。希腊神话的故事性、哲理性对英语语言文化,甚至西方语言文化都产生并将继续产生深远影响,对西方生活的方方面面的影响也是非常值得研究及深入探讨的,她深深的植根于西方文化的血液中,是每一名语言学习者不可逾越的文化源头。
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英汉两种语言的表达方式、语言习惯的不同,决定了它们所表达的相同事物之间存在着明显的差异性。然而,由于语言之间的相通性、相融性,也决定了不同语言的相同事物之间又在某些方面存在着必然的共同性。英、汉姓名的异同就是其差异性与共同性的具体体现之一,而在其中所蕴涵的深远的文化底蕴是值得我们回味与咀嚼的。本文就英汉姓名的文化内涵及其翻译方法进行粗浅探讨。
姓名的翻译要遵循两个原则:“名从主人原则”和“约定俗成原则”。“名从主人原则”是指在翻译姓名时,要以该姓名所在国语言的发音为准,而不管该姓名是直接从原文译出的,还是从其他文字转译的。换言之,就是译哪个国家的姓名就要以哪个国家的音为准。如Skolovski“斯克沃夫斯基”(波兰语发音),而不译作“斯科路夫斯基”(英语发音)。“约定俗成原则”是指有些姓名在长期的翻译实践中,已经有了固定的译法,就应该继续使用下去,即使有的不够妥帖,甚至错了,但因多年来已为人们所公认和熟悉,这样的译名也该继续沿用,无须另定译名。如英国著名作家George Bernard Shaw正确的汉译名应是“乔治·伯纳·萧”,但过去该作家的名字一直被译作“萧伯纳”,变成了一个典型的汉名,我们也只有错误地沿袭下去了。
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